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THE  MODERN  EDUCATOR'S  LIBRARY 

(general  Editor — Prof.  A.  A.   Cock 


THE   ORGANISATION 

AND    CURRICULA  OF 

SCHOOLS 


BY 

W.   G.    SLEIGHT,   M.A.,   D.Lit. 


NEW   YORK 

LONGMANS,  GREEN    AND    CO. 
LONDON:    EDWARD    ARNOLD 

1920 

[All  rights  reserved] 


\^y        aHo\ 


<^v- 


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EDITOR'S   PEEFACE 

The  Modern  Educator's  Library  has  been  designed  to  give 
considered  expositions  of  the  best  theory  and  practice  in 
EngHsh  education  of  to-day.  It  is  planned  to  cover  the 
principal  problems  of  educational  theory  in  general,  of 
curriculum  and  organisation,  of  some  unexhausted  aspects 
of  the  history  of  education,  and  of  special  branches  of 
applied  education. 

The  Editor  and  his  colleagues  have  had  in  view  the 
needs  of  young  teachers  and  of  those  training  to  be  teachers, 
but  since  the  school  and  the  schoolmaster  are  not  the  sole 
factors  in  the  educative  process,  it  is  hoped  that  educators 
in  general  (and  which  of  us  is  not  in  some  sense  or  other 
an  educator?)  as  well  as  the  professional  schoolmaster  may 
find  in  the  series  some  help  in  understanding  precept  and 
practice  in  education  of  to-day  and  to-morrow.  For  we 
have  borne  in  mind  not  only  what  is  but  what  ought  to  be. 
To  exhibit  the  educator's  work  as  a  vocation  requiring  the 
best  possible  preparation  is  the  spirit  in  which  these 
volumes  have  been  written. 

No  artificial  uniformity  has  been  sought  or  imposed,  and 
while  the  Editor  is  responsible  for  the  series  in  general,  the 
responsibility  for  the  opinions  expressed  in  each  volume 
rests  solely  with  its  author. 

ALBERT  A.  COCK. 

University  College, 
Southampton. 


AUTHOR'S   PEEFACE 

This  small  book  on  "Organisation  and  Curricula"  is 
intended  to  give  points  of  view  rather  than  numerous 
details.  Our  profession  needs  more  than  anything  else  the 
broad  views  and  the  ideals  which  will  keep  our  work  free 
from  monotony  and  staleness.  If  we  retain  our  interest 
and  freshness,  the  details  of  routine  and  practice  will  be 
eagerly  and  easily  acquired.  In  each  division  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter, therefore,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  give 
the  chief  features,  principles,  and  ideals,  and  to  avoid  a 
compilation  of  facts. 

The  new  Education  Act  became  law  when  the  book  was 
practically  completed ;  it  was  thought  advisable  to  place 
the  chapter  dealing  with  the  Act  at  the  end,  with  the  idea 
that  many  of  the  matters  dealt  with  in  the  preceding 
chapters  would  then  show  their  most  recent  phases  of 
development  in  a  genetic  order.  This  can,  however,  be 
only  partially  the  case,  since  much  of  the  book  is  con- 
cerned with  matters  which  can  never  appear  in  any  Act  of 
Parliament. 

No  part  of  the  treatment  of  the  subject  can  claim 
originality  except  that  concerned  with  the  principle  upon 
which  the  curriculum  is  framed.  A  fuller  treatment  is  to 
be  found  in  my  book  upon  "Educational  Values  and 
Methods." 


AUTHOK'S  PKEFACE  vii 

I  should  like,  in  conclusion,  to  thank  all  those  teachers, 
head-masters,  and  Directors  of  Education  who  have  taken 
so  much  trouble  in  providing  me  with  information  without 
which  this  book  would  have  been  poor  indeed.  A  short 
paragraph  of  thanks  is  a  very  inadequate  return  for  such 
services ;  if  the  book  becomes  of  some  value  to  students  and 
to  the  general  public,  the  recompense  will,  I  know,  be 
found  sufficient. 

W.  G.  S. 


CONTENTS 

FAl.K 

INTRODUCTION           -----  1 

CHAPTER 

I.   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION      -                -                -                -  6 

II.   HIGHER   EDUCATION                 -                 -                -                -  20 

III.  BUILDINGS,    FURNITURE,   AND   EQUIPMENT   -                -  37 

IV.  PRINCIPLES     OF     THE     CURRICULUM  —  ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS  -  -  -  -  -  -67 

V.   THE   CURRICULUM — ELEMENTARY     -                -                -  7.5 

VI.    THE   FLEXIBLE   CURRICULUM                -                -                -  85 

VII.    CURRICULA   OF   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS               -                 -  101 

VIII.    CURRICULA   OF   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS    {continued)       -  120 

IX.   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL — TIME-TABLES     -                -  138 

X.    OTHER   ELEMENTS   OF   SCHOOL   ORGANISATION              -  183 

XI.    SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT             ...                -  205 

XIL    OTHER   SYSTEMS   AND   TYPES   OF   SCHOOLS    -                -  225 

XIII.   ORGANISATION    AND    CURRICULA    UNDER    THE    ACT 

OF    1918-                -                -                -                -                -  244 

BIBLIOGRAPHY            -----  257 

INDEX            ------  261 


VIU 


THE    ORGANISATION    AND 
CURRICULA    OF    SCHOOLS 

INTKODUCTION 

Throughout  Continental  Western  Europe  the  State  has 
assumed  control  of  practically  all  forms  of  educational 
activity.  No  school  may  be  established,  no  person  may 
teach,  no  subject  may  be  taught,  unless  the  permission  of 
the  State  is  explicitly  given.  Every  school  established 
belongs  to  a  certain  type,  and  a  pupil's  position  in  the 
school  is  regarded  as  indicating  approximately  his  attain- 
ments and  degree  of  general  efficiency.  Similarly,  every 
teacher  belongs  to  a  certain  species,  determined  by  his 
diplomas  and  experience,  and  can  change  his  status  only 
by  modes  of  procedure  recognised  by  the  State.  Con- 
tinental systems  of  education  are  remarkable  for  the 
thoroughness  of  their  organisation,  every  detail  being 
thought  out  and  worked  out  with  the  greatest  care,  the 
whole  plan  presenting  a  mosaic  in  which  the  design  is  per- 
fectly clear  and  endlessly  repeated. 

In  Great  Britain  things  are  different.  Partly  owing  to 
national  conservatism  and  a  partiality  for  compromise  nnd 
middle  courses,  partly  owing  to  national  dislike  of  interfer- 
ence and  love  of  freedom,  public  education  is  only  partially 
organised,  and  of  those  parts  which  are  organised  some  are 
under  one  authority  and  others  under  other  controlling 
powers.  Thus  the  Board  of  Education  supervises  the 
main  body  of  schools;  but  the  Home  Secretary,  the  Ijocal 
Government  Board,  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  War 
Office,   and  the   Admiralty  have  each   their  own  special 

1 


2  THE  CUKKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

jurisdiction  over  smaller  groups.  More  important  than  the 
existence  of  multiple  central  authorities,  however,  is  the 
fact  that  education  is  only  partially  in  the  hands  of  the 
State.  The  State  might  roughly  express  its  attitude  thus  : 
"  Do  as  you  please  so  long  as  you  ask  for  no  money."  To- 
day hundreds  of  schools  exist  of  which  the  State  takes  no 
official  cognisance,  and  many  others  of  which  it  has  no 
knowledge,  official  or  otherwise.  Great  Britain  has 
schools  of  almost  every  conceivable  type,  and  schools  which 
it  would  be  difficult  to  fit  into  any  known  system  of  classi- 
fication except  as  good,  harmless  but  useless,  or  harmful 
schools.  Mr.  Wells's  account  of  them  in  "  Joan  and 
Peter"  is,  on  the  whole,  a  true  one.  One  of  the  smallest 
disadvantages  arising  out  of  such  conditions  is  the  inability 
even  to  hazard  a  guess  as  to  the  attainments  of  a  boy  or 
girl  from  a  knowledge  of  his  or  her  class  or  form .  Teachers , 
too,  form  a  heterogeneous  collection — some  recognised, 
others  unrecognised  by  the  State ;  some  educated ,  others 
half-educated;  some  trained,  others  untrained  in  their 
professional  work ;  some  receiving  salaries  on  which  it  is 
possible  to  live,  others  receiving  a  mere  pittance. 

This  absence  of  differentiation,  of  classification,  and  of 
organisation  makes  it  extremely  difficult  for  a  foreigner, 
and  even  for  an  Englishman,  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the 
system,  in  so  far  as  there  may  be  said  to  be  one,  which,  in 
spite  of  its  incoherency,  has  done  and  is  doing  so  much  for 
our  country.  To  obtain  any  adequate  view  of  the  whole, 
a  prolonged  study  would  be  needed ;  to  get  an  idea  of  thi^ 
main  groupings  it  is  necessary  to  gra.sp  the  meaning  of  a 
few  important  facts  by  tracing  the  main  features  of  the 
educational  system  of  to-day  in  the  course  of  its  more 
recent  developments. 

Untiri870,  education,  both  elementary  and  secondary, 
was  in  the  hands  of  any  who  chose  to  make  it  their  business, 
and  the   State  was  not  one  of  these.     Private  persons 


INTEODUCTION  3 

undertook  it  for  a  livelihood  or  from  a  belief  that  they  had 
a  mission ;  trustees  of  endowments  carried  on  schools 
because  they  were  responsible  for  the  use  of  the  endow- 
.  ments  ;  philanthropic  societies  carried  on  similar  work  with 
one  eye  upon  efficiency  and  the  other  upon  religious  or 
theological  training.  The  State  granted  financial  aid  to 
Elementary  Schools  on  condition  that  they  attained  a 
certain  degree  of  efficiency,  demonstrated  by  the  results  of 
an  annual  examination  conducted  by  State  inspectors. 

In  1870  the  State  took  up  the  proBlem  of  universal 
Primary  Education,  and  by  the  Act  of  that  yeat'  sought  to 
make  good  the  existing  deficiencies.  By  the  Elementary 
Education  Act  of  1870  the  whole  country  was  divided  into 
School  Board  areas,  in  each  of  which  the  School  Boards 
were  made  the  authorities  for  Elementary  Education. 
The  ratepayers  of  the  district  elected  the  members  of  the 
School  Boards  for  their  special  educational  purpose  {ad 
hoc),  and  the  School  Boards  were  empowered  to  levy  an 
education  rate  up  to  threepence  in  the  pound.  Board 
Schools,  at  first  intended  merely  to  supplement  the  supply 
of  denominational  schools,  began  rapidly  to  supplant  them, 
and  the  permission  to  levy  a  rate  soon  placed  the  Church 
Schools  at  a  disadvantage.  The  Board  Schools  in  large 
areas  were  able  to  expend  more  money  upon  building 
materials  and  teachers'  salaries,  and  hence  to  do  their  work 
more  efficiently.  On  the  other  hand,  many  Board  School 
areas  were  so  small  or  so  poor  as  to  preclu^de  the  possibility 
of  providing  good  buildings  and  good  teaching.  Moreover, 
many  members  of  the  smaller  School  Boards  were  of  neces- 
sity persons  who  were  ignorant  of  educational  matters ,  and 
cared  little  for  the  education  of  the  masses.  It  is  therefore 
a  matter  for  national  congratulation  that  secondary  educa- 
tion was  left  outside  such  an  organisation. 

The  Act  of  1902,  so  far  as  Elementary  Education  was 
concerned,  dealt  with  two  problems  which  since  1870  had 


4  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

become  more  and  more  acute — the  comparative  inefficiency 
of  the  Denominational  Schools,  owing  to  their  inability  to 
draw  upon  the  rates,  and  the  equally  great  inefficiency  of 
many  Board  Schools,  owing  to  lack  of  money  and  inexpert 
organisation,  the  result  of  having  established  such  small 
administrative  areas. 

Moreover,  the  unorganised  and  uncontrolled  state  of 
Secondary  Education  had  long  troubled  the  minds  of  all 
who  thought  at  all  upon  national  matters,  and  the  growing 
competition  between  civilised  nations  for  commercial  and 
industrial  supremacy  now  forced  the  subject  to  the  front. 
The  Act  of  1902  did  something  to  solve  all  these  problems 
by  abolishing  the  School  Boards  and  giving  to  the  newly- 
set-up  County  and  Borough  Councils  the  control  of  both 
Elementary  and  Secondary  Education. 

For  the  first  time  in  our  history  it  became  possible  to 
define  the  limits  of  each  of  the  two  types  of  education,  and 
to  attain  some  sort  of  unity  in  educational  aims  and  efforts. 
Elementary  Denominational  Schools — called  non-provided 
schools  because  the  buildings  were  not  provided  by  the 
Education  Authority,  and  continued  to  be  the  property -of 
the  denomination — passed  also  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  Local  Authority.  Many  Secondary  Schools,  to  obtain 
Government  grants,  had  already  placed  themselves  under 
State  supervision,  and  now,  in  order  to  obtain  financial 
assistance  from  the  Local  Education  Authority,  offered  free 
places  to  a  considerable  number  of  Elementary  School 
children.  Various  Local  Education  Authorities,  encour- 
aged by  the  offer  of  further  State  grants,  began  to  build 
Secondary  Schools  of  their  own.  Much  was  thus  done  by 
the  Act  to  bring  Secondary  Education  under  the  regulat- 
inof  influence  of  the  Local  Education  Authoritv,  but,  none 
the  less,  many  schools  giving  Secondary  Education — 
Private  and  Boarding  and  Public  Schools — which  felt 
themselves  still  able  to  pay  their  way  without  State  or 


INTBODUCTION  5 

municipal  assistance,  remained  free  of  State  inspection 
and  entirely  independent  of  local  control.  Nevertheless, 
(the  Acts  of  1870  and  1902  must  be  regarded  as  two  great 
landmarks  of  English  educational  progress — the  one  mak- 
ing efficient  education  possible  for  the  masses  of  the  people, 
the  other  opening  up  possibilities  of  higher  education  to  all 
capable  of  profiting  by  it — possibilities  which  are  now  being 
even  more  adequately  realised. 

The  Act  of  1918,  the  broad  outlines  of  which  are  given 
in  the  last  chapter  of  this  book,  indicates  the  distance 
educational  thought  has  traversed  since  1870  and  1902. 
The  teaching  profession  has  come  to  be  recognised  as  an 
expert  calling,  demanding  the  highest  scientific  knowledge, 
and  the  public  has  shown  increasing  interest  in  educational 
activities  of  every  kind.  The  growth  of  public  apprecia- 
tion of  the  value  of  education  before  and  especially  during 
the  war  has  made  it  possible  to  frame  and  pass  an  Act  so 
progressive — an  Act  which  in  almost  every  section  asserts 
the  right  of  the  State  to  organise  and  control  the  great  edu- 
cational activities  of  the  country  for  the  general  good. 


CHAPTER  I 

ELEMENTAKY  EDUCATION 

For  many  centuries  Elementary  Education  was  under- 
taken by  religious  bodies  and  private  individuals  v^diose 
humble  names  have  frequently  been  left  unrecorded.^  It 
was  carried  on  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
by  various  organisations,  among  which  the  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  can  claim  a  noble  pre- 
eminence ;  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  when  the 
advent  of  machinery  began  to  revolutionise  the  industries 
of  the  country  and  to  drive  the  people  into  the  towns, 
it  succeeded,  in  the  hands  of  such  pioneers  as  Joseph 
Lancaster  and  Dr.  Bell,  in  even  catching  the  attention  of 
royalty.  The  British  Schools,  founded  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Schools  Society — Lancaster's  legacy  to  his  country 
• — the  National  Schools,  founded  by  Dr.  Bell,  and  the 
National  Society  of  the  Church  of  England ;  the  Roman 
Catholic  Day-Schools,  the  Congregational  and  Wesley  an 
Schools,  and  the  Schools  of  the  Ragged  School  Union,  pro- 
vided the  great  bulk  of  Elementary  Education  until  the 
year  1870.  Since  1833  the  State  had  divided  annually  a 
gradually  increasing  sum  of  money  between  the  societies 
engaged  in  this  voluntary  work.  In  1853  a  Capitation 
Grant  was  established,  which  consisted  in  an  allowance  to 
Elementary  Schools  for  each  scholar  who  made  sufficient 
attendances.  The  year  of  the  appearance  of  Spencer's 
work  on  "Education,"  18G1,  witnessed  also  the  infamous 
arrangements,  not  abolished  until  1897,  of  "payment  by 
results,"  which  did  all  the  liai'in  anticipated  by  the  clear- 
sighted.     Since    the    establishment    in    1870    of    School 

^  See  Adamson  :  "  Short  History  of  Education." 
6 


ELEMENTAKY  EDUCATION  7 

Boards,  the  intervention  of  the  State  has  been  constantly 
increasing,  and  has  been  on  the  whole  productive  of  great 
good.  Elementary  Education  was  made  free  in  1891,  and 
by  the  Voluntary  Schools  Act  and  the  Necessitous  Board 
Schools  Act  of  1897  grants  were  increased  where  they  were 
most  needed. 

In  1900  the  Education  Department  was  reconstructed  as 
the  Board  of  Education,  and  a  Consultative  Committee 
was  formed  to  advise  the  Board  and  to  frame  the  regula- 
tions for  a  Eegister  of  Teachers.  Since  the  great  Act  of 
1902,  which  brought  Elementary  and  Secondary  Educa- 
tion under  one  control,  the  State  has  been  increasingly  and 
beneficially  active  in  promoting  the  physical  and  intellec- 
tual welfare  of  Elementary  School  children.  In  the  Edu- 
cation (Provision  of  Meals)  Acts  of  1906  and  1914,  the 
Local  Education  Authority  was  empowered  to  spend 
money  from  the  rates  in  providing  meals  for  necessitous 
children.  Provision  was  made  in  1909  for  the  medical 
treatment  of  school-children,  and  in  1913  an  Act  was  passed 
which  made  it  compulsory  for  Local  Education  x\uthorities 
to  make  adequate  provision  for  the  mentally  deficient.^ 

The  Act  of  1902  fixed  the  framework  of  central  and  local 
control.  The  three  directing  and  controlling  agencies — 
namely,  the  Board  of  Education,  the  Local  Education 
Authority,  and  the  School  Managers — represent,  or  were 
intended  to  represent,  different  kinds  and  degrees  of  super- 
vision :  the  first  remote  and  general,  the  second  local  and 
general,  and  the  third  particular  and  intimate.  The  Local 
Education  Authority  has,  however,  by  the  force  of  circum- 
stances, extended  its  functions  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
Board  of  Education  tends  to  become  more  and  more  an 
advisory  body  only. 

The  Central  Government  is  represented  by  the  Board  of 

^  See  for  full  account  Birchenough's  "  History  of  Elementary 
Education." 


8  THE  CUKKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

Education.  It  supervises  Elementary  and  Higher  Educa- 
tion, administers  Parliamentary  gTants,  draws  up  annual 
codes,  memoranda,  and  suggestions,  and,  by  means  of  a 
large  body  of  inspectors,  sees  that  a  degree  of  uniformity 
and  efficiency  is  maintained.  It  has  no  control  over  the 
Universities,  but  financially  assists  most  of  them. 

The  Local  Education  Authorities  are  no  longer  ad  Jioc 
bodies.  They  are  the  County,  County  Borough,  Non- 
County  Borough,  and  Urban  District  Councils,  elected  by 
the  ratepayers  to  administrate  all  local  business.  These 
Councils  elect  an  Education  Committee,  which  co-opts 
other  members  (at  least  one  woman^)  having  a  knowledge 
of  educational  matters. 

The  County  Council  has  control  over  Elementary  Edu- 
cation throughout  the  county,  except  in  its  County 
Boroughs,  Non-County  Boroughs  with  over  10,000,  and  its 
Urban  Districts  with  over  20,000  inhabitants.  It  also  con- 
trols Secondary  Education  throughout  the  county,  except 
in  the  case  of  its  County  Boroughs.^ 

The  managers  were  intended  to  fulfil  something  like 
parental  functions. 

The  County  Council  and  County  Borough  Authorities 
must  appoint  managers  to  all  Provided  Schools.  The 
smaller  Boroughs  and  Urban  Districts  need  not  do  so.  In 
the  case  of  Non-Provided  Schools  everywhere  the  appoint- 
ment of  managers  is  again  compulsory,  one-third  of  these 
being  selected  by  the  Local  Education  Authority.  While 
government  by  the  Central  and  Local  Authorities  is  char- 
acterised necessarily  to  a  great  degree  by  its  hard,  machine- 
like qualities,  the  relation  between  school  and  managers  is 
bound  to  be  of  a  more  personal  and  intimate  order ;  but  to 
a  great  degree  managers  have  been  stripped  of  their  powers 

*■  The  London  County  Council  Education  Committee  now  has  eight 
women  members  out  of  a  total  of  thirty-eight  elected  members  of  the 
Council,  and  six  women  out  of  a  total  of  twelve  co-opted  members. 

2  For  details  see  Education  Act,  1902. 


ELEMENTAKY  EDUCATION  9 

and  functions,  and  in  the  Provided  Schools  at  any  rate  are 
scarcely  anything  more  than  interested  and  occasionally 
useful  visitors. 

In  the  Secondary  Schools  provided  by  the  Local  Author- 
ity there  is  no  rule  for  the  appointment  of  managers.  In 
schools  not  so  provided,  the  governors  exist  to  see  that  the 
work  is  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
founders. 

The  term  "primary"  used  with  regard  to  education 
admits  of  several  meanings.  It  is  sometimes  employed  to 
cover  the  same  idea  as  the  term  "elementary,"  with  dis- 
tinct reference  to  the  education  which  is  provided  free  by 
the  State  or  for  which  school  fees  may  not  exceed  9d.  per 
week.  Sometimes  it  designates  education  of  an  elemen- 
tary kind  in  which  the  rudiments  of  knowledge  and  skill 
are  given,  and  thus  is  made  to  cover  the  instruction  pro- 
vided for  all  children  below  the  age  of  eleven  or  twelve. 
The  latter  meaning  is  certainly  the  more  legitimate  and 
logical,  and  Educational  Authorities  are  tending  more  and 
more  to  use  the  term  "  primary  "  in  this  sense.  Logically 
the  word  "elementary  "  should  cover  the  same  meaning, 
but  the  English  nation  is  seldom  consciously  logical,  and 
now  arbitrarily  differentiates  the  two  terms.  Thus 
Primary  Education  is  coming  to  mean  all  instruction  of  a 
rudimentary  kind,  whether  given  in  what  are  called 
Elementary,  or  Boarding,  or  Preparatory,  or  Secondary 
Schools;  Elementary  Education,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
held  to  designate  the  teaching  received  in  the  free  schools 
of  the  country. 

As  defined  by  the  Central  Authority,  an  Elementary 
School  is  a  school  ' '  at  which  Elementary  Education  is  the 
principal  part  of  the  education  there  given,"  but  the  term 
does  not  include  any  school  ' '  at  which  the  ordinary  pay- 
ments in  respect  of  instruction  from  each  scholar  exceed 


10  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

9d.  a  week."  "  A  Public  Elementary  School  is  a  school 
which  satisfies  certain  further  requirements  imposed  by 
Section  7  of  the  Act — namely,  that  certain  conditions  as  to 
attendance  at  religious  observance  and  instruction  shall  be 
observed,  that  the  school  shall  be  open  to  inspection,  and 
that  it  shall  be  conducted  in  accordance  with  the  conditions 
required  to  be  fulfilled  by  an  Elementary  School  in  order 
to  obtain  an  annual  Parliamentary  grant." 

The  power  to  provide  instruction  in  a  Public  Elementary 
School  is  limited  (except  by  consent  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation) to  the  provision  of  instruction  for  scholars  who,  at 
the  close  of  the  school  year,  will  not  be  more  than  sixteen 
years  of  age.  This  statutory  limit  of  age  is  the  same  for 
Higher  Elementary  Schools  as  for  Ordinary  Public 
Elementary  Schools.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case 
of  certified  schools  for  blind,  deaf,  mentally  defective, 
physically  defective,  or  epileptic  children,  not  only  the 
power  to  provide  instruction,  but  the  period  of  compulsory 
attendance,  is  extended  to  the  completion  by  the  scholars 
of  then'  sixteenth  year  of  age,  whether  this  occurs  in  the 
course  of  the  school  year  or  at  the  end  of  it. 

The  term  "Ordinary  Public  Elementary  School"  is 
used  to  include  all  schools  recognised  under  the  Code 
except  Higher  Elementary  Schools,  and  the  latter  are 
defined  as  Public  Elementary  Schools,  which  have  for  their 
object  the  development  of  the  education  given  in  Ordinary 
Elementary  Schools,  and  the  provision  of  special  instruc- 
tion bearing  on  the  future  occupations  of  the  scholars.^ 
The  Ordinary  Elementary  Schools  deal,  therefore,  with 
the  great  masses  of  the  children,  and  those  who  pass  their 
boyhood  or  girlhood  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen  in  them  niay 
be  taken  as  the  average,  the  normal. 

1  The  quotations  defining:  the  various  types  of  Elementary  Schools  are 
taken  from  "  Statistics  of  Public  Education  in  England  and  Wales  for 
1913-14,"  Explanatory  Notes. 


ELEMENTAEY  EDUCATION  11 

A  certain  propoiiion  of  Elementary  School  children  are, 
however,  abnormal,  being  either  below  or  above  the  aver- 
age in  intellectual  power  and  attainments.  The  State  has 
recognised  this  somewhat  tardily,  and  now  demands  that 
the  Local  Education  Authorities  should  make  adequate 
provision  for  these  types  of  pupils.  It  is  only  fair  to  say 
that  private  and  local  educational  forethought  and  initia- 
tive had  already  done  a  gTeat  deal  in  this  direction. 

The  national  importance  of  a  provision  for  Higher  Ele- 
mentary Education  is  slowly  making  itself  felt.  The  con- 
tinued prosperity  of  the  country  depends  upon  it,  and  it  is 
on  this  ground  that  the  appeal  has  been  most  successfully 
urged.  The  necessity  of  training  skilled,  intelligent,  and 
thoughtful  workmen  is  gradually  dawning  on  the  minds  of 
the  English  people ;  the  shadow  of  the  foreign  competitor 
dogging  their  footsteps  all  over  the  world  has  at  last 
alarmed  them.  National  material  prosperity  is  a  great 
stake,  but  not  the  highest.  True  prosperity,  national 
health — physical,  intellectual,  and  moral — depends  upon 
the  degree  to  which  the  developing  needs  and  powers  of 
our  children  are  responded  to.  A  brilliant  child  must  have 
opportunity  for  a  full  education — "  from  the  Elementary 
School  to  the  University."  A  less  brilliant  child  will  need 
opportunity  too,  but  his  education  need  not  be  carried  to 
the  University.  According  to  talent  and  power  of  using 
educational  opportunity,  so  should  educational  opportunity 
be  offered.  Only  in  recent  years  has  this  idea  begun  to 
penetrate  the  minds  of  the  British  public.-^ 

We  still  have  to  clear  our  minds  of  errors  due  to  custom 
and  prejudice.     Talent  expresses  itself  in   many   forms. 

^  There  is  a  growing  advocacy  of  Secondary  Education  for  all.  The 
Labour  Party  is  opposed  to  any  tendency  to  maintain  a  barrier  between 
the  working  and  the  middle  classes  ;  they  claim  equal  privileges  for  all. 
Outside  the  ranks  of  Labour,  too,  the  same  opinion  is  gaining  adherents. 
It  is,  for  example,  a  favourite  theme  of  those  responsible  for  The  Times 
Educational  Supplement. 


12  THE  CURKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

There  is  too  great  readiness  to  look  for  it  only  in  the  form 
of  book  knowledge,  particularly  literary  and  linguistic. 
Manual  talent  of  different  types  is  probably  not  receiving 
sufficient  recognition  or  opportunity.  It  is  true  that 
nearly  all  real  success  in  skilled  work  demands  a  power  of 
using  books,  but  in  training  the  power  to  use  books  it  is 
vital  that  we  should  not  in  the  process  suppress  or  destroy 
the  children's  real  power.  It  is  certain  that,  given  free 
opportunity,  some  will  show  talent  in  one  direction  and 
some  in  another ;  hence  the  type  of  education  we  are  offer- 
ing to  the  clever  of  all  sorts  is  probably  too  distinctly 
bookish. 

We  have,  too,  to  guard  against  another  misconception — 
the  idea  that  manual  work  is  less  honourable  than  other 
work ;  that  work  by  which  the  hand  becomes  hard  and 
dirty,  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  w'ear  aprons,  is  more 
menial  than  other  work.  It  must  be  realised  and  con- 
stantly remembered  that  to  follow  out  one's  own  bent,  to 
give  free  play  to  the  best  powders  one  possesses,  is  the  hap- 
piest, most  honourable  existence  that  can  be  led,  and  the 
one  which  is  most  useful  to  the  State. 

Schools  of  many  types  must  therefore  be  provided.  At 
present  we  have  fairly  distinct  kinds  for  Elementary 
School  children  who  have  shown  a  certain  degree  of  ability 
—the  Higher  Grade,  the  Higher  Elementary,  the  Central, 
and  the  Trade  School. 

The  Higher  Grade  School  is  the  result  of  the  initiative 
of  Local  Educational  Authorities  (School  Boards),  who, 
realising  the  importance  of  more  advanced  education  for 
those  who  could  profit  by  it,  were  willing  to  run  the  risk  of 
offending  the  ratepayers  by  spending  larger  sums  in  the 
provision  of  means.  Children  of  ability  were  given  the 
opportunity  of  spending  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  their 
Primary  School  life  in  a  higher  type  of  institution,  among 
companions  intellectually  more  on  a  level  with  themselves, 


ELEMENTAEY  EDUCATION  13 

receiving  more  advanced  instruction  in  some  subjects  and 
initiation  into  one  modern  language.  By  this  means  they 
frequently  prepared  themselves  for  entrance  into  a  Tech- 
nical or  Trade  School.  Unfortunately,  the  new  departure 
was  not  always  properly  organised.  It  is  now  clear  that  a 
definite  number  of  Ordinary  Schools  should  have  been 
made  to  feed  each  Higher  Grade  School,  and  that  only 
those  children  should  have  been  admitted  who  were  cap- 
able of  profiting  by  the  teaching,  and  of  these  only  those 
whose  parents  would  promise  to  keep  their  children  at  the 
school  for  a  definite  time  in  order  that  the  full  course  might 
be  followed.  Instead  of  adopting  this  line,  the  School 
Board  allowed  head-teachers  to  admit  children  somewhat 
indiscriminately,  little  care  being  taken  to  see  even  that 
they  had  reached  some  standard  of  attainment.  Some- 
times the  top  classes  of  an  Ordinary  School  were  consti- 
tuted Higher  Grade,  and  were  taught  in  the  same  build- 
ing ;  the  parents  of  children  in  the  lower  classes  claimed 
that  their  children,  fitted  or  not,  should  remain  in  the  same 
school,  and  should  not  be  removed  to  another  school  when 
the  dividing-line  was  reached.  The  claim  was  difficult  to 
resist,  especially  as  the  teachers  of  surrounding  schools 
which  should  have  been  "  contributory,"  and  to  whom  the 
innovation  was  strange,  objected  to  losing  their  best  pupils 
just  at  a  moment  when  it  looked  as  if  the  fruits  of  their 
training  were  about  to  be  realised.  Numbers  of  Higher 
Grade  Schools  were  therefore  doing  no  more  advanced 
work  than  the  Ordinary  Schools,  or  were  giving  more 
advanced  instruction  to  pupils  unable  to  benefit  by  it.  A 
waste  of  energy  and  public  money  resulted.  In  some 
parts  of  the  country  the  early  difficulties  have  now  been 
overcome  and  excellent  work  is  being  done. 

The  Higher  Elementary  School  was  the  creation  of  the 
Central  Authoritv,  and  doubtless  arose  as  the  result  of  a 


14  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

study  of  the  merits  and  faults  of  the  Higher  Grade  School. 
The  latter  received  no  additional  Government  grants  to 
cover  the  increased  expense  of  buildings,  apparatus, 
laboratories,  and  teachers,  and  it  was  therefore  free  to 
work  out  its  own  destiny  so  long  as  it  conformed  to  the 
regulations  for  the  Ordinary  Elementary  Schools.  In  the 
case  of  the  Higher  Elementary  School,  however,  the  Board 
of  Education  made  higher  grants  on  condition  that  its  rules 
with  regard  to  admission,  equipment,  and  curriculum  were 
obeyed.  The  Board,  until  1919,  recognised  and  paid 
special  grants  to  those  Public  Elementary  Schools  which 
had  for  their  object  "the  development  of  the  education 
given  in  the  Ordinary  Public  Elementary  Schools,  and  the 
provision  of  special  instruction  bearing  on  the  future  occu- 
pation of  the  scholars." 

These  schools  must  be  organised  to  provide  a  three  years' 
course  of  instruction ,  and  in  certain  circumstances  a  fourth 
year  may  be  provided  for  scholars  qualified  to  profit  by  it. 
Admission  is  limited  to  pupils  who  are  not  less  than  twelve 
years  of  age,  and  who  have  also  been  for  at  least  two  years 
under  instruction  in  a  Public  Elementary  School.  As  a 
rule,  the  newly-admitted  scholar  must  begin  with  the 
"first  year"  of  the  course. 

The  attempt  to  form  a  type  of  school  intermediate 
between  Elementary  and  Secondary  has  not  been  very 
successful.  Some  Local  Authorities  considered  that  the 
curriculum  imposed  by  the  Board  was  not  sufiiciently 
practical,  and  did  not  adequately  prepare  for  the  future  life 
of  the  pupils ;  that  manual  work  was  not  adequately  repre- 
sented in  the  curriculum  ;  and,  in  general,  that  their  own 
freedom  of  direction  and  control  was  curtailed  to  an  un- 
necessary extent  by  the  conditions  laid  down  for  the  earn- 
ing of  the  grant. 

It  has  also  been  found  very  difficult  to  induce  parents  to 
keep  their  children  in  such  schools  until  they  have  finished 


ELEMENTAEY  EDUCATION  15 

the  whole  course,  partly  because  of  the  wage-earning 
capacity  of  the  boy  or  girl,  and  doubtless  partly  because 
their  parents  are  sceptical  as  to  the  value  of  the  education 
given  in  the  Higher  Elementary  Schools. 

Owing  to  these  difficulties,  comparatively  few  schools  of 
this  type  have  been  established.  Local  Education  Author- 
ities have  preferred  to  avoid  the  difficulties  and  to  retain 
their  freedom  by  focussing  their  efforts  on  the  Higher 
Grade  Schools  and  on  other  types  for  which  they  have 
received  no  additional  grants.  With  the  discontinuance  of 
the  Government  grant  and  the  advent  of  compulsory  con- 
tinuation schools,  the  downfall  of  the  Higher  Elementary 
Schools  seems  imminent. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  by  the  London  Education 
Authority  to  establish  a  type  of  school  resembling  in  some 
points  the  Higher  Grade  and  Higher  Elementary  Schools, 
and  yet  differing  from  both.  These  are  the  so-called 
Central  Schools.^  They  are  intended  to  provide  what  the 
other  two  types  have  been  unable  to  provide — viz.,  instruc- 
tion which  is  emphatically  practical,  and  which  combines 
general  education  with  a  preparation  for  industrial  and 
commercial  life.  For  this  purpose  the  schools  fall  into 
two  types — those  with  an  industrial  and  those  with  a  com- 
mercial bias.  Some  are  purely  industrial  or  purely  com- 
mercial ;  others  combine  both  types.  Sometimes  the 
school  is  confined  to  one  sex  ;  sometimes  the  one  school 
contains  classes  of  boys  and  classes  of  girls ;  sometimes 
boys  and  girls  work  in  the  same  class ;  in  the  latter  cases 
the  school  has  only  one  bias,  not  both.  The  pupils  are 
selected  from  Ordinary  Elementary  Schools  at  about  eleven 
years  of  age,  partly  on  the  results  of  the  Junior  County^ 
Scholarship  examination,  and  partly  on  the  pupils'  records 

*  The  present  number  of  L.C.C.  Central  Schools  is  fifty.  Other  sixty 
departments  are  to  be  established.] 


16  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

of  work  and  conduct.  A  very  few  small  maintenance 
grants  are  also  made. 

The  State  does  not  yet  recognise  the  Central  School  or 
the  Higher  Grade  School  as  worthy  of  additional  grants, 
although  the  expenses  are  very  much  greater  than  in  the 
Ordinary  Elementary  School.  There  is  little  doubt  that, 
owing  to  considerable  diversity  in  the  admission  test,  the 
pupils  are  on  very  different  levels  of  attainment.  There  is 
also  no  statutory  power  to  compel  parents  to  keep  their 
children  at  the  school  until  the  whole  four  years'  course  is 
completed.  A  rule  exists  which  makes  forty  the  maxi- 
mum number  of  children  in  a  class,  but  this  rule  is  not 
rigidly  adhered  to.  Moreover,  the  inherent  difficulty  of 
the  decision  as  to  whether  a  boy  should  be  placed  in  the 
industrial  or  the  commercial  section  is  insuperable ;  at 
eleven  years  of  age  the  child  is  too  young  to  show  per- 
manent tendencies.  A  sensible  course  which  might 
be  adopted  is  to  make  the  first  two  years'  course 
common  to  both  sections,  and  at  thirteen  to  make  the 
decision. 

It  wouU  seem  that  there  is  a  future  for  the  Central 
School,  but  its  usefulness  as  an  important  factor  in 
national  education  can  never  be  fully  realised  until  its 
position  in  the  system  of  State  education  has  been  more 
closely  studied  and  defined.  Such  study  and  definition 
may  result  in  transforming  it  into  a  branch  of  Secondary 
Education. 

Vai'ious  Local  Authorities  have  instituted  Trade  Schools 
for  fee-paying  and  free  scholars,  who  are  there  prepared  to 
take  up  apprenticeships  or  employment  in  skilled  trades. 
As  a  rule  the  transfer  from  the  Ordinary  to  the  Trade 
School  takes  place  between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  four- 
teen. In  London  in  the  year  1918  there  were  260  scholar- 
ships for  boys  and  320  for  girls  tenable  at  such  schools  over 


ELEMENTAKY  EDUCATION  l1 

a  period  of  two  and  sometimes  three  years/  Unfor- 
tunately, many  possible  entrants,  more  suited  for  a  life  of 
manual  occupation,  have,  several  years  earlier,  been 
absorbed  into  Secondary  and  Higher  Elementary  Schools, 
where  their  manual  talents  have  necessarily  run  to  waste 
and  their  less  pronounced  academic  abilities  been  unnatur- 
ally forced. 

Throughout  the  country  the  brighter  Elementary  School 
children  can,  as  we  have  seen,  obtain  instruction  of  a  more 
advanced  kind.  At  the  same  time  special  provision  is 
made  for  children  who  for  one  reason  or  another  are  handi- 
capped in  varying  degrees  in  the  process  of  adapting  them- 
selves to  their  environment.  Only  in  comparatively  recent 
years  has  it  been  recognised  that  it  is  worth  while  for  the 
sake  of  the  community  itself  that  such  children  should 
receive  special  training ;  that  unless  such  children  are 
trained,  some  forms  of  abnormality  lead  to  crime,  and  that 
with  training  a  surprising  amount  of  usefulness  to  society 
may  be  obtained.  These  abnormal  children  are  classified 
into  groups  which  require  separate  treatment  and  a  special 
training;  the  blind,  the  deaf,  the  physically  defective,  the 

^  The  trades  taught  to  boys  were  : 

1.  Carriage  and  motor  body  building. 

2.  Professional  cookery. 

3.  Professional  waiting. 

4.  Building,  carpentry,  masonry,  bricklaying,  plumbing,  etc. 

5.  Furniture  and  cabinet  making. 

6.  Wood-carving. 

7.  Printing  and  bookbinding. 

8.  Silversmithing,  jewellery,  and  engraving. 

9.  Engineering  and  allied  trades. 

10.  Photo-engraving  and  photo-process  work. 

The  trades  taught  to  girls  were  : 

1.  Hairdressing. 

2.  Photography. 

3.  Needle  trades— dressmaking,  trade  embroidery,  ladies'  tailor- 
ing, upholstery,  millinery,  corset  and  lingerie  making. 

4.  Domestic   trades  — domestic   service    cookery,    cookery,    and 
laundry  work,  training  for  housemaids  or  parlourmaids. 

2 


18  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

epileptic,  and  the  mentally  defective  are  specifically  treated, 
and  special  .schools  are  organised  to  deal  with  each  type. 
Many  Local  Education  Authorities  make  use  for  such  pur- 
poses of  private  and  other  institutions,  instead  of  building 
and  equipping  their  own  schools. 

By  far  the  largest  number  of  these  defective  children  are 
to  be  found  in  the  schools  for  the  mentally  deficient,  many 
of  these  cases,  however,  being  the  result  of  quite  tem- 
porary causes.  Such  pupils  are  periodically  examined  by 
doctors  or  psychologists,  and  as  soon  as  sufficient  improve- 
ment has  been  observed  sent  back  to  the  Ordinary  School. 
By  humane  and  scientific  treatment  many  such  children 
have  been  saved  from  progressive  mental  deterioration, 
and  have  become  a  support  instead  of  a  burden  to  the 
State.  In  Mannheim  the  experiment  has  been  success- 
fully tried  of  dividing  the  school  into  three  departments — 
one  for  normal,  one  for  backward,  and  one  for  mentally  de- 
ficient pupils — thus  rendering  transfer  more  easy,  making 
it  possible  to  follow  up  the  history  of  each  abnormal  cliild, 
and,  in  general,  to  temper  the  wind  constantly  to  the  shorn 
lamb. 

Open-air  schools  have  been  established  for  children 
suffering  from  general  physical  debility.  In  such  schools 
most  of  the  work  is  done  out  of  doors,  lessons  requiring  the 
use  of  desks  being  taken  under  shelter  just  sufficient  to 
protect  against  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  The  so-called 
classrooms  are  little  more  than  sheds,  fully  open  on  one 
and  partially  open  on  the  other  three  sides.  Great  use  is 
made  of  the  garden,  and,  in  general,  the  education  given 
is  less  bookish  and  more  calculated  to  encourage  bodily 
activity  than  in  the  ordinary  schools.  The  results  of 
school  life  spent  entirely  in  the  open  air  have  been  suffi- 
ciently remarkable  to  warrant  a  further  development  of 
this  idea.  At  present  there  are  only  two  such  schools  in 
London,  and  very  few  indeed  elsewhere. 


ELEMENTAEY  EDUCATION  19 

The  idea  of  teaching  in  the  open  air  has  taken  root,  and 
many  teachers  are  trying  under  obvious  disadvantages  to 
apply  the  same  idea  to  the  benefit  of  normally  healthy 
childi'en.  In  some  Ordinary  Schools  classes  take  turns  in 
doing  their  v\^ork  in  the  playgrounds  or  in  neighbouring 
parks.  In  Birmingham  open-air  classrooms,  placed  in  the 
playgrounds,  have  been  erected  at  an  average  cost  of  £55. 
In  some  places  these  shelters  have  been  constructed  by 
class  and  teacher  at  a  still  smaller  cost. 

The  same  desire  to  secure  continuous  physical  and 
mental  development  has  led  to  the  institution  of  Vacation 
Schools,  where  the  children  of  poor  parents  are  healthily 
occupied  during  the  summer  holidays  in  pleasurable 
manual  work.  Nature-study,  and  games. 


CHAPTER  II 
HIGHER   EDUCATION 

Secondary  Schools 

The  growth  of  industry  and  commerce  during  the  last  150 
years  has  naturally  affected  the  Secondary  Schools,  has 
caused  great  modifications  in  their  curricula,  and  has  given 
rise  to  great  varieties  in  types  of  schools.  Not  yet,  hov^- 
ever,  has  this  influence  been  great  enough  to  produce  a 
complete  system.  It  would  be  easy  in  a  few  words  to  out- 
line the  German  system  of  Secondary  Schools — the  Gym- 
nasium or  Classical,  the  Bealgymnasium  or  Semi-Classical, 
and  the  Oberrealschule  or  Modern  School,  with  either  a 
six  or  a  nine  years'  course.  An  account  of  the  French 
system  of  Secondary  Schools  would  be  almost  as  straight- 
forward— the  State-supported  Lycee  and  the  State  and 
Commune  supported  College,  both  linking  Primary  and 
Preparatory  Education  with  Secondary,  and  both  pro- 
viding alternative  courses  of  a  classical,  semi-classical, 
linguistic  (modern  languages),  and  scientific  nature. 

It  is  not  easy  to  make  clear  the  various  types  of 
Secondary  Schools  possessed  by  this  country.  No  Govern- 
ment has  yet  had  sufficient  popular  support  to  warrant  a 
complete  overhauling  of  the  Secondary  and  semi-Secondary 
institutions.  Vested  interests,  general  ignorance  of  the 
necessity  for  system,  popular  indifference  and  opposition, 
have  prevented  any  thoroughgoing  reform. 

Uniformity  of  any  real  or  valuable  kind  is  the  one  thing 
not  to  be  found.  Some  educationists  assert  that  it  is  the 
one  thing  which  never  ought  to  be  found.     They  glory  in 

20 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  21 

the  variety  and  iiTegularity  of  onr  Secondary  system. 
Others  feel  the  necessity  for  some  degree  of  organisation, 
but  see  in  State  interference  and  control  the  inliiction  of  a 
tyranny,  the  crushing  of  all  individual  initiative,  and  the 
mechanising  of  all  educational  effort.  In  every  belief 
there  is  an  element  of  truth,  and  organisation  does  risk 
these  dreaded  dangers.  At  present  Secondary  Education 
maintains  to  a  very  large  degree  its  freedom  and  variety  of 
types,  and  the  English  parent,  in  deciding  upon  a  school 
for  his  child,  suffers  acutely  from  an  embarras  dcs 
rid  I  esses. 

This  is  not  to  say  that  progress  has  not  been  consider- 
able. On  the  contrary,  not  only  is  the  confusion  less 
to-day  than  hitherto,  but  it  is  possible  to  see  glimmerings 
of  a  future  "system."  It  was  not,  hovi^ever,  until  past 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  the  State  began 
to  wake  up  from  its  indifference  with  regard  to  Higher 
Education. 

The  statutes  under  which  many  great  schools  were  being 
governed  hampered  and  often  entirely  prevented  jn-ogres- 
sive  development.  These  statutes,  dating  often  from 
Tudor  times,  prescribed  curricula  and  an  internal  organisa- 
tion ill-fitted  to  modern  needs.  Hence  in  18G1  Lord 
Clarendon's  Commission  was  appointed  to  enquire  into  tlie 
conditions  under  which  the  leading  Public  Schools  were 
working.  This  investigation  paved  the  way  for  the  Public 
Schools  Act  of  1868,  by  which  seven  of  the  schools  under 
investigation  received  new  governors  and  new  statutes. 
Lord  Taunton's  Commission  had  already  in  18G-4  begun  its 
laborious  enquiry  into  the  state  of  the  Endowed  Schools, 
and  had  later  presented  a  Report  of  twenty  volumes.  The 
Report  revealed  many  defects  and  deficiencies  in  these 
schools,  among  the  chief  being  the  anti(]uated  schemes 
under  which  many  schools  were  being  conducted  and  the 
lack  of  anything  in  the  nature  of  Secondary  Education  for 


22  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

girls.  The  enquiry  was  productive  of  good  in  both  these 
directions.  In  18G9  the  Endowed  Schools  Act  was  passed, 
which  soon  brought  about  improvement  in  the  schemes 
under  which  many  schools  had  hitherto  been  forced  to 
work,  and  made  development  along  modern  lines  possible. 
Another  effect  of  immense  importance  was  the  impetus 
given  to  Secondary  Education  for  girls — a  development 
long  deferred,  but  vital  to  a  democratic  State.  Lord 
Taunton's  Commission  continued  its  labours  until  1874, 
arranging  schemes  for  285  schools,  and  finally  handed  its 
powers  over  to  the  Charity  Commissioners,  who  exercised 
them  until  1902. 

The  Victorian  era  saw  also  a  great  extension  of  Public 
School  Education  and  an  immense  increase  in  the  mnn- 
ber  of  Public  Boarding-Schools.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  Marlborough  and  Haileybury  as  types  of  the 
almost  purely  Boarding-School ;  Clifton  and  Manchester  as 
types  of  the  partly  boarding.  Most  of  them  were  non- 
sectarian  ;  Lancing,  however,  may  be  regarded  as  chiefly 
Anglican  and  Mill  Hill  as  Dissenting  in  character. 

If  the  schools  investigated  by  Lord  Clarendon's  Com- 
mission be  excluded,  the  number  of  Boarding-Schools 
properly  called  "Public  Schools"  was  in  1909  about 
forty,  and  the  number  has  remained  practically  con- 
stant.* The  Public  School  is  defined  by  the  sponsors  of 
the  figure  just  quoted  as  one  which  draws  its  pupils  from 
all  over  the  country,  and  possesses  a  more  than  local  repu- 
tation. The  same  authorities  exclude,  however,  a  number 
of  schools  capable  of  answering  to  these  demands,  because 
of  a  lack  of  social  status.  Hence  the  perplexed  parent 
will  still  find  himself  occasionally  in  a  quandary  in  select- 
ing a  school  which  is  within  his  means,  and  which  will  at 
the  same  time  confer  upon  his  offspring  the  social  advan- 

*  Norwood  and  Hope,  "  Higher  Education  of  Boys  in  England," 
p.  28. 


HIGHEK  EDUCATION  23 

tages  and  status  involved  in  a  Public  School  Education. 
Of  the  forty  Public  Schools,  some  are  Delocalised  Gram- 
mar Schools  like  Eepton,  Uppingham,  and  Tonbridge ; 
others  are  Proprietary  Schools  founded  by  high-minded 
individuals  or  societies,  and  not  carried  on  for  purposes  of 
profit,  such  as  those  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph . 

Among  the  Public  Day-Schools  are  St.  Paul's,  Merchant 
Taylors',  Dulwich  College,  City  of  London  School,  King's 
College  School,  University  College  School,  Manchester 
Grammar  School,  King  Edward's  School,  Birmingham, 
Bristol  and  Bradford  Grammar  Schools.  During  the  last 
four  or  five  decades  the  numbers  of  pupils  attending  these 
schools  have  doubled,  and  in  some  cases  trebled. 

The  Preparatory  School  is  also  the  product  of  the  Mid- 
Victorian  period.  While  the  Public  School  has  maintained 
its  Secondary  School  characteristics,  the  Preparatory 
School  has  undertaken  the  task  of  covering  the  elementary 
field,  and  of  preparing  its  pupils  at  thirteen  or  fourteen 
years  to  enter  the  Public  School.  The  education  provided 
is  not  elementary  in  the  usual  sense,  but  deals  with 
the  elements  of  general  education,  and,  in  addition,  with 
those  of  the  subjects  taught  in  the  higher  institutions. 
Many  of  the  largest  Public  Schools  have  their  own  Pre- 
paratory Schools  in  organic  relation  with  the  main  institu- 
tion, and  throughout  the  country  are  many  private  Pre- 
paratory Schools  in  which  special  training  is  given  to 
prepare  for  entrance  to  some  Public  School. 

The  history  of  Non-Public  Secondary  Schools  during  the 
last  forty  years  is  complicated  and  confusing,  and  we  shall 
merely  note  a  few  of  the  outstanding  facts.  The  Board  of 
Agriculture,  created  in  1889,  was  allowed  to  distribute  a 
Parliamentary  grant  to  agricultural  education ,  and  to  still 
further  complicate  an  ill-working  machine  by  inspecting 
and  reporting  on  any  form  of  Higher  Education  wliich  was 
connected  with  agriculture.     In  1894  the  Bxyce  Co.mmis- 


24  THE  CUREICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

sion  began  its  enquiry  into  Secondary  Education,  and 
revealed,  in  conjunction  with  the  1897  Census  of  Enghsh 
Secondary  Schools,  a  deplorable  state  of  disorder.  As  a 
result  of  the  Bryce  Commission  recommendations,  the 
Board  of  Education  Act  was  passe^,  in  1899,  which  estab- 
lished the  new  Board  of  Education  as  the  Central  Educa- 
tional Authority,  and  a  representative  Consultative  Com 
mittee  as  a  Board  of  Advisers.  Finally,  the  Education 
Acts  of  1902  and  1903  gave  County  and  Municipal  Author- 
ities powers  over  Secondary  Education,  thus  ensuring 
public  control  over  a  large  number  of  Secondary  Schools 
already  in  existence,  and  in  addition  giving  rise  to  the 
Municipal  Day  Secondary  School. 

The  age  for  entering  Secondary  Schools  varies  ;  it  is 
sometimes  as  low  as  eight,  although  the  principal  grant  is 
paid  only  upon  pupils  of  twelve  years  and  upwards.  The 
schools  are  classified  by  the  Board  of  Education,  so  far  as 
it  has  to  do  with  them,  according  to  the  leaving  age. 
First  Grade  Schools  are  those  in  which  the  pupils  remain 
until  eighteen  or  nineteen,  and  in  which  the  main  object 
is  to  prepare  for  the  University  or  for  the  older  professions. 
Second  Grade  Schools  provide  at  least  a  four  years'  course, 
from  twelve  to  sixteen,  although  the  Board  now  gives  con- 
siderable financial  encouragement  to  these  schools  to  keep 
their  pupils  a  year  or  two  longer. 

When  the  regulations  with  regard  to  age  have  been 
satisfied  and  "  the  school  has  been  inspected  by  the  Board, 
and  is  regarded  as  providing  efficient  instruction  and  pos- 
sessing adequate  premises,  it  is  placed  on  the  list  of 
Secondary  Schools  recognised  by  the  Board  as  efficient." 
"If  in  addition  certain  further  conditions  are  satisfied — 
e.g.,  as  to  management,  religious  tests,  financial  position, 
scale  of  fees,  etc. — the  school  may  ...  be  recognised  as 
eligible  for  grant."     Large  numbers  of  good,  bad,  and 


HIGHEE  EDUCATION  5 

indifferent  Secondary  Schools  will  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  Board  of  Education,  prefen-ing  to  retain  their  inde- 
pendence and  free  initiative.  This  freedom,  not  without 
danger  to  the  community,  will  possibly  continue  to  be 
retained  so  long  as  the  best  of  these  schools  do  valuable 
work,  and  parents  are  wihing  to  entrust  their  children's 
future  to  uncertain  and  unguaranteed  agents.  Perhaps, 
however,  the  State  will  step  in  and  make  use  of  the  powers 
it  possesses — not  in  a  benumbing,  but  in  a  really  vitalising 
way,  wisely  leaving  freedom  to  those  capable  of  using  it. 

Technical  Schools 

The  first  great  impetus  towards  Technical  Education 
was  given  by  the  great  Exhibition  of  1851,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  Science  and  Art  Department  was  brought  into 
existence.  The  teaching  of  drawing  was  subsidised  by 
grants  given  for  certificated  proficiency  in  art,  and  extra 
grants  were  paid  to  schools  or  classes  organised  as  "  Science 
Schools"  with  a  three  years'  course.  Some  literary  in- 
struction in  these  schools  was  afterwards  made  compulsory. 
Thus  in  1894,  outside  London,  thirty-nine  Higher  Grade 
and  sixteen  Endowed  Secondary  Schools  were  organised 
as  Science  Schools.  At  the  same  time  the  Evening 
Schools  conducted  similar  courses,  entitling  them  to  the 
grants  for  science  and  art  teaching.  As  a  result,  hopeless 
confusion  reigned  as  to  what  was  primary  and  what  was 
secondary  instruction.  The  "  Cockerton  "  judgment  in 
1900  drew  public  and  administrative  attention  to  this  state 
of  things,  and  the  Act  of  1902,  by  putting  the  control  of 
both  Primary  and  Secondary  Education  into  the  hands  of 
the  same  authority,  made  differentiation  and  co-ordination 
at  length  possible. 

The  confusion  just  alluded  to  was  increased  in  1889  by 
the  appearance  of  a  formidable  rival  to  the  Secondary 
Schools  in  the  shape  of  Technical  Schools.     The  [jowcr  to 


26  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

give  technical  instruction  was  conferred  upon  the  recently 
established  County  Councils  by  the  Technical  Act,  and  in 
1890  the  Taxation  (Customs  and  Excise)  Act  made  over 
to  the  Councils  the  residue  of  the  beer  and  spirit  duties 
(known  since  as  "whisky  money")  for  application  to 
technical  and  science  and  art  instruction — a  sum  of  money 
equal  in  amount  to  the  whole  income  of  the  Endowed  and 
Secondary  Schools  of  the  country.  This  money,  together 
with  the  Id.  rate  allowed,  amounted  to  nearly  one  million 
pounds.  The  result  was  a  severe  handicapping  of 
Secondary  Education  on  the  literary  and  cultural  side,  and 
a  rush  of  pupils  into  Technical  Schools  before  they  had 
acquired  the  necessary  foundation  which  only  Secondary 
Education  of  a  general  kind  could  give  them.  The  Act  of 
1902  cleared  the  gTound  for  a  system  of  progressive  educa- 
tion, which  is  now  on  its  way  to  realisation. 

The  trades  and  occupations  have  been  broadly  classified 
as  (1)  artistic  handicrafts,  such  as  metal-chasing  and  en- 
graving, enamelling,  carving,  etc.  ;  (2)  partly  manual 
trades,  such  as  cabinet-making,  plumbing,  masonry, 
tailoring,  etc.  ;  (3)  factory  and  workshop  occupations  ;  and 
(4)  agi'icultural  occupations ;  and  it  has  been  suggested 
that  each  class  will  require  its  own  type  of  technical  instruc- 
tion.^ Technical  instruction  has  certainly  developed  along 
these  lines,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  in  Germany, 
where,  for  example,  occupations  such  as  butchering  some- 
times have  their  own  special  school  for  instruction  in  the 
technique  of  the  business.  In  England  there  exist  Schools 
of  Building,  of  Arts  and  Crafts,  of  Engineering  and  Navi- 
gation ;  classes  for  bricklayers,  gas-fitters,  and  for  scores  of 
other  occupations.  Nevertheless,  Technical  Schools  in 
this  country  aim  less  at  specialised  trade  teaching  than  at 
an  understanding  of  the  principles  underlying  a  trade  or 
group  of  trades. 

^  Cyril  JacksoD,  "  Outlines  of  Education  in  England^" 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  27 

Together,  the  Polytechnics  and  Municipal  Technical 
Schools  give  excellent  technical  instruction,  and  in  con- 
junction with  the  technical  departments  of  University 
Colleges  form  the  natm'al  passage  to  post-graduate  re- 
search work  of  the  Provincial  Universities  and  of  the 
Imperial  College  of  Science  and  Technology. 

Continuation  Schools 

All  kinds  of  institutions  have  contributed  to  the  sum- 
total  of  agencies  at  work  for  promoting  Continuation  Edu- 
cation. The  Sunday-Schools,  Adult  Schools,  Mechanics' 
Institutes,  the  Working  Men's  Colleges,  the  Y.M.C.A., 
and  many  other  agencies,  have  been  important  factors  in 
the  progress  already  made.  In  1855  the  first  Government 
aid  was  afforded  in  the  shape  of  grants  to  the  often  isolated 
classes  for  pupils  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  eighteen, 
managed  by  benevolent  societies  and  private  individuals. 
Considerable  improvement  resulted  when  in  18G1  day- 
school  teachers  were  permitted  to  give  instruction  in 
Evening  Classes,  and  in  1870,  with  the  establishment  of 
School  Boards,  fresh  impetus  was  given  to  the  movement 
for  Evening  Education. 

In  1890  an  Evening  School  Code  was  published,  and  the 
upper  age  limit  of  pupils  removed.  As  the  Code  demanded 
variety  in  the  curriculum,  interesting  methods  of  teaching, 
and  the  introduction  of  games,  the  emphasis  was  slowly 
and  naturally  transferred  from  efficiency  of  work  to  enter- 
tainment, and  the  value  of  the  work  deteriorated.  The 
difficulty  spoken  of  in  connection  with  the  Technical 
Schools  was  reflected  in  the  Evening  Continuation  Schools 
—the  difficulty,  namely,  of  finding  instruction  which  the 
pupil  was  able  to  understand,  and  which  could  at  the  same 
time  be  called  technical,  in  order  to  earn  the  grants  for 
Technical  Education.  When  in  1902  the  often  antagon- 
istic authorities  for  primary  and  higher  instruction  were 


28  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

made  one,  certain  reforms  became  possible.  The  Act  of 
1870  had  made  it  far  less  necessary  to  provide  very  elemen- 
tary teaching  in  the  Evening  Schools,  since  the  scholars 
had  all  received  the  education  of  the  Primary  School.  As 
this  education  was  not  sufi&cient  to  provide  the  necessary 
foundation  for  technical  training,  the  Evening  Schools 
became  the  natural  channel  connecting  Elementary  and 
Technical  Education.  The  work  was  now  limited  at  both 
ends,  and  made  to  proceed  along  definite  lines,  and  the 
Evening  School  took  its  place  in  a  definite  system.  Its 
special  aim  is  to  continue  the  education  of  those  who  have 
left  Elementary  Schools,  and  to  ensure  the  liberal  or 
general  characteristics  of  the  work  ;  the  more  specialised 
training  is  almost  universally  combined  with  general 
educational  subjects  into  courses. 

Excellent  work  has  been  and  is  being  done  in  the  Even- 
ing Schools  of  the  country,  but  attendance  has  hitherto 
been  voluntary.  Under  such  a  condition  much  valuable 
time,  energy,  and  public  money  have  been  wasted,  and  by 
far  the  greater  number  of  Primary  School  children  have 
received  no  systematic  instruction  or  discipline  after  the 
age  of  fourteen.  Under  the  new  Education  Bill  of  1918 
this  state  of  things  comes  to  an  end,  and  Continuation 
Education  becomes  compulsory  until  the  age  of  sixteen  is 
reached.  The  Bill  permits  this  age  at  a  later  stage  to  be 
raised  to  eighteen. 

Many  leading  business  firms  had,  long  before  the  recent 
Bill  just  referred  to,  made  continuation  instruction  com- 
pulsory for  their  apprentices  and  younger  workpeople. 
Other  firms,  although  not  making  attendance  at  Continua- 
tion Schools  a  condition  of  employment,  had  encouraged 
it  by  every  means  within  their  power,  and  had  thus  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  the  cause  of  adolescent  education. 

Even  the  .Army  has  been  drawn  into  the  movement,  and 
quite  apart  from  its  own  Schools  and  Training  Depart- 


HIGHEE  EDUCATION  29 

ments,  organised  to  meet  its  pre-war  needs,  has  established 
in  its  graded  battaHons  of  A  IV.  men  classes  in  which 
geography,  economics,  and  social  history,  as  well  as  many 
other  subjects,  are  taught  by  whatever  suitable  type  of 
man  it  has  been  possible  to  find.  There  are  also  voluntary 
classes  for  older  men,  and  Education  Schools  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  for  the  training  of  Army  instructors.^ 

Many  agencies  besides  the  authorities  just  mentioned 
have  been  busy  with  the  problem  of  Continuation  Educar 
tion.  The  University  Extension  Lecture  organisation, 
established  in  1873,  has  done,  and  is  doing,  admirable  work 
by  means  of  its  popular  lectures  and  class-work.  The 
Adult  School  Movement,  after  receiving  its  modern  im- 
pulse in  1845,  had,  in  1914,  1,883  schools,  with  a  mem- 
bership of  over  80,000.  In  1903  was  founded  the  Workers' 
Educational  Association,  which  in  1917  comprised  2,333 
affiliated  societies ;  the  Association  has  organised  one-year 
classQS,  study-circles,  and  courses  of  lectures,  as  well  as 
supplying  lecturers  to  other  organisations.  The  University 
Tutorial  Movement,  established  in  1907,  organised  three- 
year  courses  which  aimed  at  reaching  the  standard  of 
University  work  in  Honours ;  the  members  of  these  classes 
are  mainly  working  men  and  women.  Ruskin  College  in 
Oxford  and  the  Labour  College  in  London  provide  residen- 
tial courses  which  prepare  working  men  and  women  to 
take  official  positions  in  Trade  Unions  and  other  industrial 
organisations.  Co-operative  Societies,  Settlements,  Field 
Clubs,  Working  Men's  Clubs,  are  all  making  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  cause  of  Continuation  Education.  Sum- 
mer Meetings  and  Vacation  Courses,  organised  by  the 
various  associations  already  mentioned,  will  soon  be  as 
remarkable  a  feature  of  English  Adult  Education  as  of 
American.     While  the  greater  part  of  Continuation  Educar 

^  See  Second  Interim  Report  of  the  Adult  Education  Committee, 
'♦  Education  in  the  Army,"  1918.     (Cd.  9225.) 


30  THE  CURKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

tion  has  been  carried  on  in  the  industrial  and  urban 
centres,  the  rural  districts  have  been  by  no  means  idle. 
The  Committee  on  Adult  Education  singles  out  for  par- 
ticular mention  a  Kent  rural  district  where  one  organisa- 
tion covers  a  dozen  villages  and  small  towns.  ^ 

When  the  enormous  difficulties  under  which  many  men 
and  women  endeavour  to  procure  educational  opportunities 
are  considered — difficulties  with  rega-rd  to  hours  of  labour, 
overtime,  the  shift  system,  night  work,  distance,  home 
study,  and  numberless  others — it  is  easy  to  realise  the  pos- 
sibilities open  to  our  country  when  Continuation  Education 
becomes  widely  distributed  and  thoroughly  organised.^ 

Training  Colleges 

The  organisation  for  the  training  of  teachers  has  always 
been  outside  what  may  be  called  the  educational  system  of 
the  country.  The  Local  Authorities  have  since  1902  been 
compelled  by  the  State  to  make  provision  for  both  Elemen- 
tary and  Secondary  Education,  but  until  quite  recently  all 
the  Training  Colleges  had  been  founded  by  societies,  and 
for  the  most  part  by  religious  societies.  Until  quite  re- 
cently the  supply  of  Training  Colleges  was  totally  inade- 
quate to  the  needs  of  the  times,  thousands  of  candidates 
for  the  teaching  profession  being  unable  to  obtain  places. 
So  inadequate  was  the  provision,  and  so  entirely  quiescent 
was  the  Central  Authority  on  the  subject,  that  it  might 
have  occurred  to  a  student  of  education  that  the  State 
wished  to  severely  limit  the  number  of  trained  elementary 
teachers.  Since  1902  the  larger  Local  Authorities  have 
been  encouraged  by  means  of  large  building  grants  from 
the  national  exchequer  to  build  Training  Colleges  for  the 
purpose  of  meeting  the  needs  of  the  district.     Thus  at  the 

*  See  Interim  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Adult  Education,  1918 
(Cd.  9107).  Also  "  Reconstruction  Problems — Labour  Conditions  and 
Adult  Education." 


HIGHEE  EDUCATION  31 

present  time  there  exist  Training  Colleges  for  Elementary 
teachers  which  are  carried  on  by  the  Chm-ch  of  England, 
the  Wesleyan  Chmxh,  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church,  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  School  Society,  and  by  certain  of  the 
larger  municipalities,  all  under  Government  inspection, 
and  depending  for  their  maintenance  upon  the  Govern- 
ment grant  paid  for  each  student  in  attendance.  Most  of 
the  Colleges  are  residential  or  have  hostels  attached.  The 
older  Training  Colleges  are  almost  entirely  residential. 

Many  educationists  have  in  the  last  few  years  expressed 
themselves  very  strongly  against  the  system  of  training 
students  for  the  teaching  profession  in  institutions  devoted 
solely  to  that  purpose.  They  have  seen  in  the  enforced 
segregation  an  influence  which  hinders  the  development  of 
broad  views  and  wide  interests,  so  necessary  to  a  teacher, 
and  have  urged  the  necessity  of  putting  the  Training  Col- 
leges in  close  touch  with  the  Universities.  These  views 
are  meeting  with  almost  general  acceptance,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  before  long  radical  changes  of  this  nature  will 
take  place.  Already  there  are  a  number  of  Training  Col- 
leges closely  attached  to  Universities,  as  in  London,  Man- 
chester, and  Leeds ;  the  students  receive  their  academic 
training  in  the  University,  and  their  professional  training 
is  given  by  the  staff  of  the  Training  College. 

Training  Colleges  for  elementary  teachers  are  now 
usually  classified,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  responsible 
body,  as  University,  Council,  or  Voluntary.  The  first- 
mentioned  are  either  Training  Departments  of  Universities 
or  of  Constituent  Colleges  of  Universities,  Training  De- 
partments of  University  Colleges,  or  Training  Colleges 
provided  by  a  University.  Council  Colleges  arc  those 
which  are  provided  by  Local  Education  Authorities. 

The  ordinary  course  of  training  covers  two  years,  and 
occasionally  is  extended  to  three.  For  students  of  a  Col- 
lege closely  connected  with  a  University  and  providing  a 


32  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

course  of  study  leading  to  a  degree,  the  course  is  usually  one 
of  three  years,  and  in  the  case  of  students  aiming  at  an 
Honours  Degree  four  years. 

The  Board  has  authorised  two  principal  methods  for 
obtaining  a  constant  flow  of  students  into  the  Training 
Colleges.  "  A  Local  Education  Authority  for  Higher  or 
Elementary  Education  may  recommend  for  recognition  as 
bursars  boys  or  girls  who  intend  to  become  in  the  future 
Elementary  School  teachers  and  are  attending  full  time 
at  a  Secondary  School  .  .  .  but  require  assistance  in  order 
to  render  their  continuance  at  the  school  financially  pos- 
sible." A  bursar  is  recognised  for  one  year  only.  The 
candidate  must  be  over  sixteen  and  under  eighteen,  and 
his  parents  must  sign  a  declaration  of  the  bona-fide  inten- 
tion of  the  bursar  to  become  a  teacher  in  a  Public  Elemen- 
tary School.  He  must  produce  a  certificate  from  the  head 
master  or  mistress  of  the  Secondary  School  stating  that  he 
is  not  unsuitable  for  the  profession,  and  that  he  may  rea- 
sonably be  expected  to  pass  an  examination  during  his 
bursarship  qualifying  for  entrance  to  a  Training  College. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  of  recognition,  bursars  may,  if  they 
do  not  remain  at  the  Secondary  School,  either  (1)  enter  a 
Training  College  for  Elementary  teachers,^  or  (2)  enter  a 
Training  School  of  domestic  subjects,  or  (3)  become 
student  teachers  ...  in  an  area  in  which  the  authority 
has  brougiit  into  operation  a  scheme  approved  by  the 
Board  of  Education  for  the  supervision  of  student  teachers. 
The  student  teachership  lasts  ordinarily  for  one  year,  but 
may  be  continued  for  a  second  year  with  the  approval  of 
the  Board  of  Education.  During  this  period  a  considerable 
time  must  be  spent  under  supervision  in  an  Elementary 
School ;  the  rest  of  the  time  is  generally  spent  in  the 

^  A  list  of  the  examinations  qualifying  for  admission  to  a  Training 
College  is  given  in  Appendix  A  of  the  "  Regulations  for  the  Training 
of  Teachers  for  Elementary  Schools,"  and  in  Circular  1166. 


HIGHEE  EDUCATION  33 

Secondary  School  attended  as  a  bursar.  The  original 
arrangement  was  that  the  student  teacher  attended'' the 
Elementary  School  not  more  than  eight  times  per  week, 
but  under  recent  regulations  the  Board  allows  Local 
Authorities  to  submit  schemes  adapted  to  local  conditions 
in  regard  to  the  division  of  the  time  between  training, 
instruction,  and  recreation.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the 
student  teacher  enters  a  Training  College.^ 

Persons  over  eighteen  years  of  age,  who  have  been 
neither  bursars  nor  student  teachers,  may  enter  a  Training 
College  on  condition  that  they  have  passed  the  qualifying 
examination,  and  on  the  further  condition  that  they  receive 
during  their  Training  College  course  an  adequate  amount 
of  practice  in  teaching. 

One  feature  of  this  system  has  met  with  considerable 
criticism.  Head-teachers  of  Secondary  Schools  find  great 
difficulty  in  dealing  with  the  student  teachers  attending 
their  schools  only  twice  a  week.  They  form  usually  a 
small  and  somewhat  alien  section,  whose  chief  interests  lie 
outside  the  school,  and  whom  it  is  difficult  to  fit  into  the 
school  organisation.  When  Training  Colleges  become 
integral  parts  of  Universities  the  difficulty  will  be  over- 
come. 

The  second  princij)al  means  of  entrance  to  a  Training 
College  is  through  a  course  of  training  and  instruction  as 
pupil-teachers.  The  Regulations  provide  that  boys  and 
girls  who  are  receiving  (a)  training  in  teaching  in  Public 
Elementary  Schools,  together  with  (6)  instruction  ;iccepted 
by  the  Board,  may  be  recognised  as  pupil-teachers.  The 
period  for  which  they  are  recognised  is  normally  two  years. 
The  Local  Education  Authority  undostakcs  to  see  that  tlie 
pupil-teacher  receives  proper  training  in  teaching  and  a 

^  For  exceptions  to  these  arrangements  see  "  Regulations  for  the 
Preliminary  Education  of  Elementary  School  Teachers,''  pp.  2-LJ.  The 
exceptions  usually  refer  to  pupil-teachers  in  country  schools. 

3 


34  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

course  of  academic  instruction.  He  may  be  employed  for 
not  more  than  half  and  not  less  than  a  quarter  of  the 
number  of  Elementary  School  meetings  throughout  the 
period  for  which  he  is  recognised,  and  in  addition  to  the 
time  set  apart  for  his  academic  instruction  he  must  have 
either  two  half-days  or  one  whole  day  in  each  week  free 
from  employment.  Great  care  is  exercised  by  the  Board 
■that  the  centres  for  instruction  of  pupil-teachers  are 
adapted  to  the  task.  A  Pupil-Teachers'  Centre  may  either 
form  an  integral  part  of  a  Secondary  School  recognised  as 
efficient  and  suitably  equipped  for  the  special  purpose,  or 
be  regarded  as  attached  to  one  or  more  Secondary'  Schools 
or  Higher  Elementary  Schools,  or  be  conducted  as  a 
separate  institution.  The  minimum  number  of  hours  and 
times  during  which  the  pupil-teacher  may  attend  are  also 
fixed.  Preparatory  classes  for  boys  and  girls  intending  to 
become  pupil-teachers  may  provide  instruction  between 
the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen,  and  must  fulfil  the 
Board's  other  conditions.^ 

It  is  tolerably  clear  what  the  common  aim  of  these  two 
methods  of  securing  trained  recruits  for  the  teaching  pro- 
fession is.  The  old  pupil-teacher  system  failed  in  several 
ways.  At  a  verj'  early  age  it  segregated  the  candidates  to 
then'  great  hurt ;  it  also  placed  too  much  work  and  respon- 
sibility upon  the  shoulders  of  very  inexperienced  young 
people,  often  to  their  own  disadvantage  and  to  that  of  the 
scholars  they  taught.  They  acquired  also  too  often  merely 
empirical  methods  of  teaching,  formed  habits  good  and 
bad  before  they  were  old  enough  to  reflect  successfully, 
and  retained  them  during  a  grotesquely  long  pupil-teacher- 
ship  until  they  had  lost  the  plasticity  necessary  in  bringing 
about  any  modification  of  them.  These  faults  the  present 
systems  have  done  something  to  correct.     One  thing,  how- 

^  For  further  information  on  the  whole  subject  see  "Regulations 
for  the  Preliminary  Education  of  Elementary  School  Teachers." 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  35 

ever,  the  old  system  seems  to  have  done  successfully  :  it 
conferred  upon  the  pupil-teacher  a  facility  in  managing 
childi-en,  "  in  keeping  his  or  her  end  up"  before  a  class 
which  the  present  pupil-teacher  and  the  student  teacher 
often  lack.  The  cure  for  present  failings  seems  to  lie  in 
effecting  a  compromise  between  the  two  systems. 

The  provision  for  training  Secondary  School  teachers  is 
very  small,  although  it  has  to  be  remembered  that  many 
students  trained  in  Colleges  for  Elementary  teachers  find 
employment  later  in  Second  Grade  Elementary  Schools. 
Even  making  allowance  for  the  small  number  of  pupils  in 
Secondary  Schools  compared  with  those  in  Elementary 
Schools,  the  proportion  of  trained  Secondary  teachers  is 
absurdly  low.  The  chief  reason  for  this  state  of  things  is 
to  be  found  in  the  remarkable  belief  held  by  very  many 
persons  interested  in  Higher  Education  that  training  is 
unnecessary.  It  is  assumed  that  a  man  or  woman  of 
knowledge  and  culture  can  teach  without  studying  the  art 
of  teaching.  There  is  generally  a  grain  of  truth  in  any 
nonsense,  and  it  is  true  that  the  trained  teacher  runs  the 
risk  of  having  his  enthusiasm  and  innate  teaching  gifts 
reduced  to  a  sterile  formalism.  The  mass  of  candidates 
for  the  teaching  profession,  nevertheless,  need  training, 
and  benefit  by  it. 

The  course  followed  in  the  Secondary  Training  Colleges 
is  confined  to  professional  work,  and  must  extend  over  not 
less  than  a  full  academical  year.  Only  those  students  are 
recognised  who  have  obtained  a  degree  or  some  other 
approved  qualification  previous  to  the  commencement  of 
their  course.  It  is  an  essential  condition  of  the  recognition 
of  a  College  that  suitable  Secondary  Schools  should  be 
available  in  which  students  can  study  and  practise  the  art 
of  teaching.  The  Board  of  Education  has  lately  favoured 
an  arrangement  by  which  a  Training  College  or  a  Training 
Department  of  a  University  works  in  close  connection  with 


36  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

a  group  of  ai)proved  Secondary  Schools.  The  Training 
College  undertakes  the  ultimate  responsihility  for  the 
whole  of  the  student's  training,  and  delegates  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  practical  training  to  the  authorities  of 
Secondary  Schools  of  an  approved  type.  This  organisa- 
tion is  thus  a  compromise  between  two  types — one  which 
makes  the  Training  College  the  centre  and  the  other  which 
makes  the  school  the  centre  of  the  training  of  the  student. 


CHAPTEK  III 

BUILDINGS,  FURNITURE,  AND  EQUIPMENT 

The  school  building  plays  its  part  in  the  educative  process. 
If  it  occupies  a  jDosition  of  dignity,  stands  out  from  its 
commonplace  surroundings,  has  an  appeai'ance  both  inside 
and  outside  which  commands  respect,  and  is  light  and 
cheerful  within,  the  effect  upon  the  pupil  is  bound  to  b© 
good.  When,  as  is  unfortunately  so  often  the  case,  it  is 
cramped  among  dwellings,  built  like  a  factory  or  barracks, 
and  is  dull  and  cheerless,  the  effect  is  just  as  certain  to  be 
bad.  It  is  desirable,  too,  that  the  pupils  should  feel 
attracted  to  their  school,  should  admire  it  as  an  institu- 
tion ;  and  from  this  point  of  view  no  care  spent  on  adding 
dignity  and  beauty  to  the  building  can  be  considered  as 
wasted.  The  more  uncongenial  the  surroundings,  the 
greater  the  necessity  for  a  fine  school. 

The  effect  upon  the  parents  and  other  inhabitants  of  the 
district  is  also  considerable.  The  Englishman  is  notorious 
for  his  contempt  of,  or  at  least  his  indifference  to,  educa- 
tion, and  if  a  few  millions  spent  on  school  buildings  would 
convert  him,  the  investment  would  be  a  paying  one. 

The  teacher  more  than  anyone  feels  the  influence  of 
noble  surroundings.  His  life  tends  to  become  largely 
routine,  and  is  felt  to  be  monotonous.  Through  the  con- 
stant need  for  "fool  explanations"  and  for  repetition  ad 
7iauseam,  through  everlasting  contact  with  minds  far  less 
developed  than  his  own,  he  often  comes  to  regard  himself 
as  a  "  hack."  When  to  this  is  joined  a  depressing  build- 
ing, with  badly  lighted  rooms,  labyrinthine  corridors j  or 

37 


38  THE  CUKEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

windows  too  far  from  the  floor  to  permit  a  glimpse  of  the 
outside  world,  then  he  may  indeed  feel  himself  in  a  back- 
wash of  human  activity.  No  one  can  measure  the  amount 
of  influence  that  school  buildings  have  had  upon  the  teach- 
ing profession. 

It  is  undeniable  that  some  of  the  best  educational  work 
and  training  has  been  done  in  buildings  ill-fitted  for  their 
purpose.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  such  work 
has  been  done  in  spite  of  disadvantageous  conditions,  and 
that  while  teachers  of  genius  and  of  a  naturally  cheerful 
temperament  may  rise  superior  to  circumstances,  others, 
and  by  far  the  greater  number,  are  extremely  sensitive  to 
them.  The  principles  which  condition  the  activities  of  the 
ordinary  human  being,  and  not  those  of  the  genius,  are 
most  worth  attention.  When  the  school  building,  like  the 
church,  possesses  a  dignity  and  artistic  beauty  of  its  ovv'n 
commensurate  with  its  importance,  influencing  in  the 
fullest  possible  manner  pupils,  parents,  and  teachers,  the 
whole  organisation  of  education  will  feel  its  beneficent 
effects,  and  the  schools  of  the  country  may  then  become 
institutions  around  which  centre  the  affections  of  its 
people,  and  social  as  well  as  educational  activities. 

School  architecture  is  still  in  the  experhnental  stage. 
The  hygienic  and  educational  problems  involved  are  by  no 
means  mastered.  It  is  anticipated  that  changes  in  our 
educational  methods  will  in  the  immediate  future  be  at 
least  as  rapid  as  in  the  past,  that  many  of  the  more  impos- 
ing edifices  lately  erected  will  in  thirty  or  forty  years  be 
structurally  antiquated.  The  growing  realisation  of  the 
importance  of  manual  and  physical  work,  of  securing  the 
active  collaboration  of  the  pupils,  and  of  open-air  work, 
will  necessitate  school  buildings  of  a  type  very  different 
from  those  of  to-day.  Hence  it  seems  inadvisable  to  build 
schools  of  a  very  enduring  structure. 


BUILDINGS,  FURNITUEE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    39 

In  deciding  upon  the  site  of  a  school  building,  care 
should  be  taken  that  it  is  in  an  open  spot,  and  that  the 
surroundings  should  not  be  of  an  undesirable  kind.  It 
should  not  be  built  near  noisy  factories,  workshops,  rail- 
ways, or  busy  roads,  and,  if  possible,  should  be  reasonably 
near  some  park  or  open  space.  The  class-rooms  should,  as 
a  rule,  face  south-east  or  east.  It  has  been  customary, 
generally  owing  to  lack  of  space,  to  build  the  Elementary 
School  on  three  floors,  but  it  is  desirable  to  choose  a  site 
where  the  school  building  can  be  made  to  cover  a  larger 
area,  the  ideal  being  that  the  whole  school  should  be  on  the 
ground  floor. 

The  new  demand  for  open-air  classes  will  necessitate 
some  modifications  in  the  nature  of  the  playground — per- 
haps the  presence  of  a  number  of  trees  to  provide  shade. 
The  school  garden,  too,  will  demand  more  playground 
space.  Roof  playgrounds  are  useful  where  better  provi- 
sion is  impossible.  The  Board  of  Education  Regulations 
stipulate  in  schools  of  less  than  200  children  a  minimum 
playground  space  of  2,000  square  feet,  together  with  20 
square  feet  for  each  older  and  G  square  feet  for  each 
younger  child.  The  shape  of  the  playground  should 
approximate  to  a  square,  and  should  have  a  warm,  sunny 
aspect. 

In  the  planning  of  the  school  building  consideration  has 
to  be  given  to  the  proposed  organisation  into  departments 
and  classes,  and  to  the  number  of  children  the  school  is 
intended  to  aocommodate.  With  regard  to  the  first,  the 
rule  laid  down  in  the  Regulations  is  that  no  single  depart- 
ment should  contain  more  than  400  children,  and  Local 
Authorities  are  advised  that  separate  departments  for  older 
boys  and  girls  make  organisation  easier  and  more  efficient. 
The  question  as  to  whether  children  under  five  years  of  age 
should  be  admitted  to  the  school  is  now  left  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  Local  Education  Authority,  and  the  decision, 


40  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

must  affect  the  general  plan  of  the  building.  Moreover, 
in  different  districts  the  leaving  age  varies ;  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  the  top  classes  are  very  small ;  in  other  parts 
fairly  large  ;  and  this  has  to  be  considered  when  the  school 
is  to  be  erected.  The  question  arises  as  to  what  is  the 
ideal  size.  In  our  large  towns  it  would  appear  that  be- 
tween 300  and  400  is  regarded  as  the  most  convenient  com- 
plement of  a  department,  and  therefore  between  900  and 
1,200  of  the  whole  school.  In  the  large  towns  of  Germany 
the  number  of  children  in  one  school  often  reaches  2,000 
or  3,000,  and  among  these  there  are  none  under  six  years 
of  age.  It  is  evident  that  the  two  countries  have  different 
opinions  on  the  subject.  On  the  one  hand,  classification 
tends  to  become  more  efficient  when  the  school  is  large  ; 
but  on  the  other,  the  organisation  becomes  more  machine- 
like and  misses  the  direct  influence  of  the  head-teacher, 
who  can  only  very  seldom  know  anything  of  individuals. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  last  consideration  is  of  vital 
importance,  and  English  teachers  have  always  attached 
great  value  to  it.  It  is,  however,  very  difficult  to  adhere 
always  to  a  good  principle  in  the  face  of  actual  conditions. 
For  example,  the  swift  growth  of  some  towns  or  parts  of 
towns  has  created  an  emergency  which  can  only  be  met  by 
building  a  very  large  school ;  for  land  has  been  very  ex- 
pensive, and  one  plot  is  cheaper  than  two.  For  these  and 
other  reasons  we  find  schools  of  different  sizes.  In  Lon- 
don the  schools  are  gi'aded  according  to  their  size  ;  Grade  I. 
having  any  number  of  pupils  up  to  200,  Grade  II.  from  200 
to  400,  and  Grade  III.  more  than  400,  so  that  even  in  the 
largest  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  head-teacher's  in- 
fluence being  felt  throughout  the  school. 

The  population  of  some  neighbourhoods  fluctuates  very 
much,  and  a  sudden  increase  has  brought  about  the  erec- 
tion of  some  very  large  schools ;  ten  or  tvv-enty  years  later, 
with  the  completion  of  the  great  engineering  work  or  the 


BUILDINGS,  FURNITUEE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    41 

exhaustion  of  the  mine,  the  population  has  become  normal 
and  left  the  schools  without  pupils.  It  has  been  found 
advisable,  therefore,  to  meet  a  sudden  need  for  increased 
accommodation  by  putting"  up  small  temporary  buildings 
in  the  playground  or  near  the  school,  and  to  dismantle 
them  when  the  emergency  is  over.  Such  temporary  build- 
ings may,  when  suitably  constructed,  be  used  again  and 
again  to  meet  similar  passing  needs. 

The  provision  of  a  hall  is  essential  to  any  large  school, 
and  this  need,  again,  complicates  the  question  of  the 
general  plan  of  the  school.  The  school  building  erected 
after  1870  consisted  generally  of  three  floors,  arranged 
symmetrically  one  over  the  other.  The  infant  department 
was  invariably  on  the  ground  floor,  the  boys  usually  occu- 
pied the  middle,  and  the  girls  the  top  floor.  Frequently 
corridors  ran  along  the  length  of  the  school  and  the  class- 
rooms opened  out  from  them .  The  corridor  developed  into 
a  central  hall,  and  for  many  years  no  large  school  building 
was  erected  without  a  central  hall,  with  class-rooms  open- 
ing out  of  it  generally  on  all  four  sides. 

One  great  disadvantage  of  this  arrangement  was  the 
failure  to  secure  an  adequate  supply  of  fresh  air  in  class- 
room and  hall.  Moreover,  several  of  the  class-rooms  would 
necessarily  be  deprived  of  adequate  sunlight  and  natural 
heat.  Efiicient  ventilation  and  a  proper  supply  of  sun- 
light are  now  known  to  be  vital  to  health  ;  it  is  therefore 
regarded  as  essential  that  class-rooms  should  be  so  arranged 
that  they  obtain  the  necessary  supplies  of  fresh  air  and 
sunlight.  To  obtain  the  former  they  must  have  unob- 
structed windows  on  two  opposite  sides  of  the  rooms.  To 
secure  the  latter  the  windows  must  not  face  north.  The 
centrally-placed  hall  was  also  a  constantly  disturbing  factor. 
Since  physical  exercises  and  chorus-singing  were  often 
carried  on  there,  the  resultant  noise  was  very  distracting 


42 


THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


for  the  children  in  adjacent  class-rooms.  This  was 
specially  true  in  the  case  of  the  infant  department,  where 
the  hall  was  in  constant  use  the  whole  day,  and  where 
restrictions  as  to  noise  would  be  educationally  most  harm- 
ful. The  educational  value  of  a  hall — its  use  for  assembly, 
the  opportunity  it  offers  for  cultivating  a  corporate  life — is 
so  great  that  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  and  a  great  deal 
of  thought  has  been  given  to  the  problem  of  how  to  retain 
it  without  retaining  the  disadvantages. 

Some  schools  have  been  designed  on  the  lines  of  the  fol- 


lowing rough  diagram 


J. 

J 

nnzrzrj: 


MALL 


n 


- 


□ 


3 


Fig.  1. 


The  common  hall  is  placed  close  to  the  infant  depart- 
ment, and  can  be  reached  from  it  by  means  of  a  covered 
verandah.  The  children  of  the  other  departments  have 
sometimes  to  brave  the  elements  to  reach  it.  To  every 
class-room  through  ventilation  and  direct  sunlight  are 
secured,  and  no  classes  are  disturbed  by  the  noise  which  is 
so  often  a  necessary  element  of  work  or  play  in  the  central 
hall.  As  all  departments  use  the  hall,  it  is  probable  that 
each  department  uses  it  insufficiently,  and  there  would 
be  considerable  advantage  if  the  infants  had  in  addi- 
tion a  large  room  for  organised  games  and  free  move- 
ment. 


BUILDINGS,  FUKNITURE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    43 
Another  variant  is  roughly  as  follows  : 


HALL 


Fig.  2. 

In  this  case  the  school  is  not  a  "pavilion  school,"  but  is 
built  in  storeys,  and  would  therefore  be  more  suitable  for 
an  urban  area  where  land  is  expensive.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  evident  that  such  a  plan  requires  more  space  than  the 
old  type  of  school,  and  owing  to  the  projecting  wings 
diminishes  effective  playgTound  space.  Perhaps,  too,  such 
a  plan  increases  the  difficulty  in  the  way  of  an  artistic 
design.  None  the  less,  the  great  aim  being  to  secure 
hygienic  efficiency,  it  is  probable  that  the  advantages  out- 
weigh the  disadvantages. 

It  is  in  the  class-room  that  pupil  and  teacher  spend  most 
of  their  time,  and  therefore  any  care  spent  upon  making  it 
thoroughly  hygienic,  comfortable,  and  artistic  will  not  be 
wasted.  The  Board  of  Education  by  its  Kegulations  lays 
down  minimum  demands  with  regard  to  the  first  two 
conditions. 

For  infants  at  least  9  square  feet  per  head  of  floor-space 
must  be  provided,  and  10  square  feet  for  older  children. 
Long  and  narrow  rooms  must  be  avoided,  because  they 
throw  a  strain  upon  children's  sight  and  the  teacher's 
voice,  and  make  supervision  and  instruction  difficult.  It 
will  be  advisable  to  have  class-rooms  of  different  sizes, 
since  classes  tend  to  diminish  in  numbers  as  the  leaving 
age  approaches,  and  variations  in  numbers  occur  owing  to 
promotion  and  other  causes.  There  should  be,  too,  a  suffi- 
cient number  to  preclude  the  necessity  of  two  teachers 


44  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

working  in  the  same  class-room.  The  latter  regulation, 
together  with  another  forbidding  the  use  of  class-rooms  as 
passage-ways  either  to  other  class-rooms  or  to  entrances, 
secures  for  the  modern  teacher  and  liis  work  a  degree  of 
comfort  unknown  to  former  generations. 

Teachers  of  only  twenty  years'  experience  will  remem- 
ber the  congested  state  of  many  rooms.  The  Eegulations 
are  now  quite  clear  with  regard  to  this  point,  and  demand 
that  a  space  of  7  feet  0  inches  along  the  whole  front  of 
the  class  be  kept  free  of  desks ;  that  gangways  between 
dual  desks  be  1  foot  4  inches  in  width  ;  and  that  1  foot  of 
space  be  left  between  the  last  rows  of  desks  and  the  walls. 
Temporary  difficulties,  however,  often  cause  a  suspension 
of  these  rules. 

In  arranging  the  desks  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
most  favourable  position  for  good  lighting  is  selected  ;  they 
should  be  placed  so  that  the  light  falls  from  the  left  of  the 
pupils.  It  is  better  that  neither  teacher  nor  pupils  should 
face  windows,  since  objects  between  the  observer  and  a 
strong  light  are  seen  with  difficulty.  With  artificial  light- 
ing, too,  certain  necessary  precautions  should  be  taken. 
When  natural  light  on  winter  days  begins  to  fail,  all  in- 
struction which  involves  looking  at  small  print  or  black- 
board wTiting  should  be  discontinued,  or  carried  on  only 
under  really  good  artificial  light.  Far  too  little  attention 
is  given  to  this  matter.  Teachers  should  never,  under  any 
conditions,  allow  children  to  undertake  work  which  in- 
volves the  slightest  strain  upon  the  eyes.  Every  Local 
Authority, too,  should  regard  it  as  a  most  important  duty  to 
see  that  the  lighting  is  sufficient  to  enable  the  pupils  to  do 
their  work  without  this  strain.  When  gas  is  used,  the 
installation  should  include  a  provision  by  means  of  which 
the  fumes  are  driven  out  of  the  room.  If  the  ordinary 
incandescent  burner  is  employed,  the  greatest  care  should 
be  taken  to  secure  a  constant  current  of  fresh  air,     Eleo 


BUILDINGS,  FURNITUBE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    45 

trie  lighting  is  probably  the  best,  as  it  neither  heats  to  any 
extent  nor  vitiates  the  air  of  tlie  room. 

"The  colouring  of  the  walls  and  ceilings  and  of  all 
fittings  in  the  rooms  should  be  carefully  considered  as 
affecting  the  light."  Those  parts  of  the  wall  which 
grimy  fingers  can  touch  should  of  a  dark  colour,  so  as  not 
to  show  the  dirt ;  the  upper  parts  require  a  colour,  such  as 
pale  green,  which  neither  absorbs  light  nor  fatigues  the 
eye. 

The  proper  ventilation  of  the  class-room  is  a  matter  of 
the  first  importance.     The  health  of  the  child,  his  power 
to  attend  and  respond  to  instruction,  his  behaviour,  and, 
in  fact,  his  whole  future,  depend  to  a  great  degree  upon 
the  provision  of  fresh  air.     The  teacher  can  and  must  help 
in  this  vital  matter.     He  can  see  that  sufficient  windows 
are  open  top  and  bottom  ;  that  the  proper  windows  are 
open,  the  proper  blinds  are  drawn,  and  that  during  recrea- 
tion and  lunch  hour  the  rooms  are  thoroughly  flushed. 
Even  under  unfavourable  conditions  these  matters  can  be 
attended  to,  and  many  of  the  worst  evils  of  bad  ventilating 
arrangements  mitigated.     In  Continental  countries  and  in 
i^merica  the  great  cold  has  produced  the  double  window 
and  the  overheated  and  often  stuffy  room.     The  same  im- 
pulse which  leads  the  German  traveller  to  close  all  the 
railway-carriage  windows  makes  the  German  schoolmaster 
seal  up  his  class-room  in  the  same  way,  with  the  result 
that  the  atmosphere  is  frequently  unbearable.     No  one 
can  tell  what  the  evil  effects  upon  the  children  have  been. 
In  our  own  country  the  blessings  of  fresh  air  are  more 
generally  recognised,  but  even  here  much  more  thought 
would  be  given  to  the  subject  if  its  importance  were  more 
clearly  realised.      Much  has  been  done  by  designers  of 
schools  to  aid  the  teacher  in  this  work,  and  the  Board  of 
Education  nightly  insists  that  certain  conditions  vshould  be 
observed.     "The  inlets  for  fresh  air  should  be  large  and 


46  THE  CUEKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

well  distributed,  and  be  provided  with  some  arrangement 
to  divert  the  incoming  air  from  striking  directly  on  to  the 
children  and  teachers."  The  "draught-board,"  so  com- 
mon in  nearly  all  urban  schools,  by  directing  the  incoming 
air  upwards,  permits  the  opening  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
window.  Mr.  Clay  strongly  recommends  that  glazed 
hoppers  should  be  fitted  to  all  the  window-frames  down 
each  side  of  the  room.  The  sash  should  be  of  the  rising 
type,  so  that  the  space  by  which  the  air  enters  can  be 
made  large  or  small.  In  hopper  openings  at  the  top  of 
windows  the  slant  of  the  swing  window  is  inwards  and 
upwards,  so  that  the  incoming  air  is  directed  first  to  the 
ceiling.  It  is  found,  however,  that  its  force  is  not  spent 
on  striking  the  ceiling,  and  that  in  cold  weather  it  de- 
scends as  a  cold  draught  upon  the  heads  of  the  children. 
Centre-hung  swing  panes  should  in  mild  w^eather  be  open 
as  wide  as  ix)ssible,  and  in  cold  weather  used  for  flushing 
purposes.  Other  means  of  admitting  fresh  ak,  especially 
necessary  when  in  winter  many  windows  must  be  closed  or 
almost  closed,  are  by  means  of  Tobin's  tubes,  ventilating 
grates,  and  openings  behind  the  hot-water  radiators. 

Mechanical  and  combined  systems  of  heating  and  venti- 
lation in  which  an-  raised  to  a  sufficient  temperature  to 
warm  the  rooms  is  used  for  ventilation  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. The  Plenum  system  is  an  example.  For  effi- 
cient working  all  windows  and  doors  have  to  be  kept 
closed  ;  the  windows  are  fastened  and  are  practically  never 
opened.  In  all  these  systems  "the  stimulating  and  in- 
vigorating effects  of  fresh,  cool  air  are  lost  "  ;  and  in  addi- 
tion the  children  acquire  the  bad  habit  of  sitting  in  rooms 
with  closed  windows.  As  private  houses  are  never  supplied 
with  such  a  system  of  ventilation,  the  children  miss  those 
practical  lessons  in  natural  ventilation  which  would  be  of 
real  service  in  their  home  life. 

In  England  the  problem  of  heating  rooms  properly  is 


BUILDINGS,  FUKNITUEE,  AND  EQUIPMENT   47 

much  simpler  than  in  Continental  countries  and  in 
America,  where  the  cold  is  sometimes  severe  and  pro- 
longed. In  our  own  schools  and  under  normal  conditions 
it  is  a  fairly  simple  matter  to  maintain  the  proper  tempera- 
ture of  between  56°  and  60°  F.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  facility  of  the  problem  by  no  means 
obviates  the  necessity  of  dealing  with  it.  Eoom  tempera- 
tures of  50°  F.  involve  a  discomfort  to  the  pupils  which  is 
opposed  to  mental  activity,  and  a  temperature  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  40°  lowers  the  vitality  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  make  school  work  almost  barren  of  results.  The 
teacher  sometimes  forgets  the  difference  between  his  own 
position  and  that  of  the  children  ;  he  is  constantly  moving  : 
they  are  often  sitting  still  for  prolonged  periods ;  he  can 
put  on  an  extra  coat,  and  the  woman  teacher  often  does 
so  :  they  cannot ;  he  has  warm  winter  clothing  :  they  are 
frequently  ill-clothed ;  he  can  scarcely  help  being  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  fire  :  many  of  the  pupils  are  remote 
from  it.  These  differences  should  be  remembered,  and 
steps  taken  to  render  the  children  as  comfortable  as  pos- 
sible. In  cold  weather  they  should  have  plenty  of  oppor- 
tunities for  movement ;  frequent  exercise  should  be  taken 
and  the  thermometer  should  be  frequently  consulted  in 
order  to  see  that  the  temperature  is  being  maintained  at 
the  required  height.  The  amount  of  heating  is  largely 
determined  by  the  kind  and  amount  of  ventilation,  "for 
the  full  use  of  fresh-air  openings  is  largely  governed  by  the 
power  of  quickly  warming  the  room.  Where  cross-ventila- 
tion is  provided,  a  single  firej)lace  will  be  insufficient  to 
warm  the  room."  In  a  large  room  heated  by  an  open  fire 
the  heating  should  be  supplemented  by  hot-water  pipes  on 
the  side  farthest  from  the  fire.  As  a  rule  the  teacher  has 
no  voice  in  the  choice  of  the  system  of  heating,  by  open 
fire,  stoves,  gas  radiators,  warm  air,  or  hot  water,  but  he 
can  do  his  best  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  principles,  so 


48  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

that  the  air  of  his  class-room  is  kept  as  fresh  as  possible 
and  as  warm  or  as  cool  as  under  the  existing  conditions  is 
best  calculated  to  maintain  his  scholars'  health  and  mental 
activity. 

The  furniture  of  the  class-room  should  be  of  a  non- 
obstructive kind,  and  easily  movable,  so  as  to  ahow  of  the 
class-room  being  easily  cleaned.  It  is,  for  example,  better 
to  have  cupboards  let  into  the  wall  than  separate  ones. 
It  is  better  to  have  single  or  dual  desks  than  long  ones. 
It  should  be  possible  to  clear  a  room  easily  and  render  it 
available  for  freer  forms  of  movement,  or  for  handwork 
and  activities  which  require  large  flat  tables  instead  of 
desks.  If  University  desks  are  ordinarily  employed,  and 
the  class-room  floor  is  level  throughout,  this  becomes  an 
easy  matter.  In  such  a  room,  wall-slates  at  a  proper 
height  should  be  provided  in  plenty,  especially  in  all 
infants'  class-rooms.  For  the  youngest  children  small 
tables  with  chairs  are  preferable  to  desks,  so  that  the  floor- 
space  may  be  made  easily  available  for  free  movements. 
It  is  almost  equally  important  that  the  older  children 
should  enjoy  the  same  advantages,  and  that  we  should  rid 
ourselves  of  the  notion  that  our  pupils  must  always  be 
seated  at  desks. 

In  front  of  the  class  and  close  to  the  middle  of  the  rear 
wall  a  platform  is  sometimes  placed,  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  overlook  the  whole  class.  The  platform  should  be 
movable,  so  that  it  need  occupy  room-space  only  when  the 
teacher  is  diminutive.  It  should  not  be  more  than  6  inches 
high,  and  if  placed  as  far  from  the  class  as  possible  Vv^ill 
involve  no  muscular  strain  to  neck  or  eyes  of  the  nearest 
pupils.  As  a  rule  it  is  unnecessary,  and  table  and  black- 
boai"ds  are  the  only  furniture  which  should  occupy  the 
space  in  front  of  the  class. 

' '  Seats  and  either  desks  or  tables  should  be  provided  for 
all  the  children,  varying  in  size  according  to  the  heights  of 


BUILDINGS,  FUKNITUKE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    49 

the  children,  and  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  window 
wall.  The  seats  should  be  fitted  with  backs.  If  desks  are 
supplied,  they  must  be  single  or  dual.  In  selecting  seats 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  following  points  : 

"  (a)  The  height  from  the  floor  to  the  seat  should  be 
such  as  to  allow  the  child  when  seated  to  rest  its  foot  on 
the  ground  or  on  a  suitable  footboard.  The  upper  part  of 
the  children's  leg  should  be  horizontal  and  the  lower  part 
vertical . 

"  (h)  The  height  from  the  seat  to  the  writing  surface 
should  allow  the  child  when  writing  to  sit  upright  in  an 
easy  position. 

"  (c)  The  edge  of  the  writing  surface  should  be  almost 
directly  over  the  edge  of  the  seat.  It  is  better  that  the 
writing  surface  should  overlap  the  seat  somewhat  than 
that  there  should  be  any  appreciable  distance,  measured 
horizontally,  between  the  two  edges." 

The  teacher  has  generally  little  or  nothing  to  do  with 
the  selection  of  desks,  but  he  can  be  awake  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  situation.  He  can  try  to  approximate  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  above  rules  by  using  intelligently 
the  desks  placed  in  his  room,  and  choosing  for  each  child 
the  desk  best  adapted  to  his  size.  In  cases  where  the  room 
contains  no  desks  to  suit  certain  children,  he  may  be  able 
to  effect  exchanges  with  other  teachers  similarly  placed. 
When  suitable  desks  have  been  allocated  they  should  be 
retained,  and  a  fresh  distribution  made  as  soon  as  the 
bodily  growth  of  the  pupils  demand  it.  If  a  child  has  to 
stand,  he  should  move  out  from  the  desk  into  the  gangway 
to  allow  of  an  erect  position.  It  is  impossible  to  insist  too 
strongly  on  the  necessity  for  allowing  children  to  change 
their  position  frequently,  to  do  work  which  does  not  in- 
volve sitting,  and  to  move  about  with  a  reasonable  degree 
of  freedom  And  when  they  are  compelled  by  certain 
kinds  of  work  to  keep  seated,  the  intelligent  and  humane 

4 


50  THE  CUKEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

teacher  will  be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  encourage  or 
enforce  good  healthy  sitting  positions,  for  in  spite  of  the 
most  hygienic  desks  children  can  and  do  assume  most  un- 
healthy positions. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  one  of  the  most  important 
duties  of  the  teacher  is  to  counteract  the  injurious  elfects 
upon  his  pupils  of  confinement,  of  prolonged  sitting,  and 
consequent  loss  of  the  advantage  of  natural  and  lieneficial 
activity  ;  to  achieve  this  by  vigilant  attention  to  the  chang- 
ing physical  conditions  under  v^^hich  instruction  has  to  be 
carried  on ;  by  not  relying  upon  the  mechanical  hygienic 
arrangements  of  the  class-room,  but  by  constantly  applying 
common  sense  and  scientific  health  principles  to  the  school 
routine.     The  young  teacher  is  often  so  closely  occupied 
with  problems  of  order  and  methods  of  teaching  that  he 
overlooks  this  side  of  his  work  entirely,  and  only  under  the 
supervision  of  a  watchful  hea^-teacher  will  he  come  to 
regard  this  side  of  his  work  seriously.     Nothing  can  com- 
pensate  for  loss  of  health,   and   loss  of  health  is   often 
brought  about  by  neglect  of  matters  apparently  insigni- 
ficant. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  accommodation  of  schools  should 
be  somewhat  greater  than  the  actual  average  number  of 
children  in  attendance,  and  that  there  should  be  one  or 
two  rooms  in  excess  of  the  actual  number  of  classes. 
These  extra  rooms  are  specially  necessary  when  it  is  not 
easy  to  clear  the  floor-space  of  class-rooms  in  the  way 
previously  described.  The  extra  rooms  could  be  used  for 
practical  work — Nature-study,  handwork  of  all  kinds — and 
by  various  classes  in  turn.  The  Regulations  rightly  sug- 
gest that  such  rooms  would  be  better  without  fixed  furni- 
ture, but  unfortunately  permit  them  to  be  reckoned  to- 
wards the  accommodation  which  the  school  is  recognised 
as  providing.  In  the  infant  school  one  of  these  rooms 
would  naturally  become  the  playroom. 


BUILDINGS,  FURNITUKE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    51 

The  extra  room  must  not  be  considered  a  substitute  for 
the  handicraft  room,  which  should  be  modelled  on  the 
basis  of  a  workshop  rather  than  a  school.  Most  Local 
Authorities,  in  order  to  reduce  expenditure,  have  estab- 
lished Handicraft  Centres  to  which  the  pupils  of  a  group 
of  schools  are  sent  in  turn.  Under  the  conditions  which 
existed  when  handicraft  was  first  introduced  this  was 
necessary,  because  the  subject  was  still  in  its  experimental 
stage,  and  also  in  order  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  small 
number  of  cjualified  teachers.  It  is  now  no  longer  in  the 
experimental  stao;e,  and  a  "very  large  number  of  teachers 
have  qualified  themselves  to  teach  it.  Not  only  so ;  it  has 
been  brought  into  very  close  relations  with  the  other  sub- 
jects of  the  cuniculum,  and  is  now  also  prized  as  an  indis- 
pensable method  of  teaching  geography,  technical  drawing, 
and  other  subjects.  Instead,  therefore,  of  centres  which 
are  nearly  always  alien  to  the  life  and  purposes  of  the 
individual  school,  there  should  be  a  handicraft  room  in 
every  large  school,  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  head- 
teacher,  who  would  co-ordinate  the  work  done  there  with 
the  general  school  activities. '  The  same  remarks  apply, 
in  a  modified  form  perhaps,  to  the  organisation  for  the 
•teaching  of  domestic  subjects,  such  as  cookery,  laundry- 
work,  and  general  housewifery.  In  small  schools,  the 
children  will  naturally  attend  the  centres  for  such  subjects. 
"A  large  room,  suitable  for  instruction  in  cookery  and 
laundry -work,  would  also  be  suitable  for  the  teaching  of 
combined  domestic  subjects,  with  the  addition  of  at  least 
two  adjoining  rooms,  each  approximately  14  feet  by  12  feet, 
furnished  as  a  sitting-room  and  bedroom  respectively." 

In  Higher  Elementary  and  Central  Schools  there  should 
be  a  room  specially  fitted  for  advanced  drawing,  arranged 
so  that  it  receives  a  north  light ;  and  besides  a  simply 
furnished  laboratory  for  practical  science  work,  there 
should  be  a  demonstration  room  with  demonstration  table 


52  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

and  a  stoep  gallery  to  afford  a  proper  view  of  the  teacher's 
experimental  procedure. 

It  is  obvious  that  many  of  the  material  advantages 
mentioned  will  be  all  but  impossible  in  the  case  of  small 
schools.  These  material  disadvantages  may  be  balanced 
by  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  advantages  of  more  in- 
timate contact  with  the  head-teacher,  and  the  school  con- 
ditions may  make  for  equally  efficient  work.  The  head- 
teacher  frequently  teaches  the  three  or  four  highest 
standards  himself,  and  has  perhaps  two  assistants  for  the 
rest  of  the  upper  schools.  In  such  a  case  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  have  a  "main  room  " — that  is,  a  room  in  which 
such  composite  classes  can  be  divided  into  sections  in  order 
to  make  the  instruction  efficient.  The  main  room  may 
thus  be  occupied  by  two  or  three  standards,  working  at 
different  tasks,  one  of  them  being  under  direct  oral  instruc- 
tion. It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  the  room  used  in  this 
way  should  be  considerably  larger  than  an  ordinary  class- 
room, and,  v/here  there  is  no  hall,  should  have  space  suffi- 
cient to  allow  of  physical  exercises  and  other  free  work  of 
the  kind  already  described. 

It  has  become  a  time-honoured  custom  to  hang  maps, 
pictures,  and  illustrative  w^ork  of  all  kinds  upon  the  walls 
of  the  class-rooms.  Some  teachers  believe  that  a  map 
which  is  permanently  placed  before  the  pupils  will  end  by 
impressing  its  features  upon  them.  Experience  shows, 
however,  that  children's  attention  is  very  rarely  tm'ned  to 
familiar  objects,  and  that  therefore  no  educational  good 
accrues.  The  subconscious  effects  of  the  surroundings 
are,  nevertheless,  great.  When  the  pictures  are  worthless 
from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  the  colours  crude,  and  the 
surface  dirty  ;  when  the  maps  are  defaced  and  cracked  by 
long  usage  and  exposure;  when,  in  fact,  the  children's 
general  surroundings  are  inartistic,  their  taste  tends  to 
become   depraved.     Like   the   school  building  itself,  the 


BUILDINGS,  FURNITURE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    53 

class-room  should  possess  a  dignity  of  its  own,  and  exercise 
a  beneficial  influence  on  all  who  spend  their  time  there. 
Maps  should  usually  be  consigned  to  store-room  cupboards, 
and  only  worthy  illustrations  should  appear  on  the  walls  of 
the  rooms. 

Cleanliness  and  brightness  should  characterise  the  class- 
room. Monitors,  if  properly  directed  and  supervised,  will 
give  the  finishing  touches  to  the  work  of  the  school  cleaner, 
and  a  few  plants  and  well-chosen  pictures  will  contribute 
to  malve  the  class-room  a  cheerful  and  comfortable  place, 
in  which  the  cultivation  of  a  healthy  body  and  a  healthy 
mind  meets  with  no  unnecessary  obstacles. 

The  Secondary  School 

A  great  part  of  what  has  already  been  said  of  the 
Elementary  School  building  and  equipment  applies  equally 
to  the  Secondary  School.  Certain  modifications  in  the 
arrangements  are  necessary  in  order  to  satisfy  the  different 
conditions.  In  the  Secondary  School,  for  example,  the 
scholars  are  in  general  older,  and  their  work  is  also  of  a 
more  advanced  type.  The  approach  of  adolescence  is 
characterised  by  bodily  and  mental  conditions  which  re- 
quire to  be  met  in  part  by  a  suitable  material  environment. 
(1  rowth  is  rapid  and  energy  diminishes ;  it  is  a  time  of 
nervous  disintegration,  and,  more  important  than  all  else, 
the  primary  and  secondary  sex  functions  begin  to  play 
their  part.  With  diminished  energy,  there  is  a  return  to 
passive  attention;  dull  and  formal  repetition  of  all  kinds, 
unless  the  material  is  interesting,  becomes  tedious.  The 
power  to  think  abstractly,  to  understand  principles 
appears,  and  memorising  must  now  be  carried  on  by  means 
of  logical  connections.  The  pupil  begins  to  experience  and 
to  sympathise  with  hitherto  almost  unknown  emotions, 
such  as  love,  jealousy,  pity.  His  ideals  begin  to  take 
shape,  and,  to  his  confusion,  appear  often  in  strange  con- 


54  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

tradiction  with  each  other.  His  personahty  begins  to 
show  more  definitely,  and  the  ambitions  and  more  perma- 
nent desires  begin  to  indicate  what  path  in  hfe  he  will 
follow.  Arbitraiy  authority  is  now  ruled  out  and  reason 
takes  its  place. 

To  these  bodily  and  mental  changes  even  the  school 
buildings  and  adjuncts  must  adjust  themselves.  We  note, 
for  example,  that  to  the  freer  and  less  highly  organised 
games  of  childhood  succeed  self-controlled  and  finely 
adjusted  gymnastic  movements ;  and  for  these  a  gym- 
nasium is  required.  The  free  play  of  younger  children 
develops  in  adolescence  into  more  highly  organised  group 
games  and  contests  in  which  the  individual  is  subordinated 
to  the  team  ;  and  for  these  the  school  needs  a  playing-field. 
The  class-rooms  should  be  spacious  and  the  classes  some- 
what smaller.  Science  laboratories,  art  rooms,  and  music 
rooms  should  be  provided.  We  may,  indeed,  assert  that 
the  guiding  principle  in  differentiating  between  the  Ele- 
mentary and  the  Secondary  scholar  is  based  upon  differ- 
ences of  physical  and  intellectual  characteristics  and  upon 
the  difference  of  aims  in  the  two  branches  of  education. 
Anything  to  which  this  principle  cannot  be  apphed,  any- 
thing over  and  above  what  this  principle  directs,  must  be 
either  a  superfluity  or  something  to  which  the  Elementary 
School  child  is  equally  entitled. 

It  should  be  noted  that  many  children  of  the  highest 
classes  of  the  Elementary  School  are  undergoing  the  same 
physical  and  mental  developments  as  those  of  the  Second- 
ary School.  Poor  and  well-to-do,  scholarship  and  non- 
scholarship  pupils,  all  have  to  pass  through  the  same  gate 
to  manhood  or  womanhood.  Arguing,  therefore,  from  the 
nature  of  the  older  scholar,  there  will  be  but  little  need  to 
differentiate.  The  additional  provision  of  science  and  art 
rooms  will  be  the  result  of  attempting  more  advanced  work. 

The   differences   between   Elementary   and    Secondary 


BUILDINGS,  FURNITURE,  AND  EQUIPMENT    55 

School  children  have  been  over-emphasised.     It  is  common 
knowledge  that  the   Secondary   School  provided  by  the 
municipality  is  built  and  equipped  in  a  style  superior  to  the 
Elementary   School.      The  playground  is,  in  accordance 
with  'the  Regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education,  very 
much  larger  and  is  provided  with  seats ;  there  are  playing- 
fields  o?  at  least  2  acres,  and  a  gymnasium  with  minimum 
dimensions  of  50  and  25  feet.     It  is  laid  down  that  class- 
rooms 01  Elementary  Schools  should  not  be  designed  for 
more  thaa  60 ,  or  at  the  rate  of  2  for  every  100  pupils ;  those 
of  Secondary  Schools  for  not  more  than  30,  or  at  the  rate 
of  4  for  every  100  pupils.     The  provision  of  extra  rooms, 
lecture  ro^ms,  and  a  library,  is  also  recommended  for  the 
latter.     The  hall  of  the  Elementary  School  should  have, 
we  are  told,  a  floor  space  of  about  8|  square  feet  for  each 
scholar ;  tiat  of  the  Secondary  School  one  of  from  6  to  8 
square  feei.     The  class-room  of  the  former  is  planned  on 
the  10  sqmre  feet  basis,  and  of  the  latter  on  the  basis  of 
from  16  to  18  square  feet  per  child. 

With  reference  to  the  Elementary  School,  it  is  stated  in 
quite  a  theoretical  manner  that,  "  where  possible,  arrange- 
ments for  Irying  wet  clothes  are  valuable ' '  ;  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Secondary  School  that  "it  is  very  desirable  to 
provide  a  snail  drying  room  for  wet  cloaks."     "  In  large 
Secondary  Schools,"  too,  "  it  is  desirable  to  provide  chang- 
ing rooms,  which  should  be  fitted  with  fixed  seats,  pegs, 
lockers,  anc  boot-racks."     In  the  matter  of  lavatories,  the 
former  shoild  provide  both  in  boys'  and  girls'  departments 
1  lavatory  lasin  for  every  25  children  ;  the  latter  1  for  every 
20  boys  ani  1  for  every  10  girls  up  to  100.     The  same 
exaggeratiai  of  the  differences  between  the  needs  of  Ele- 
mentary aid  Secondary  School  children  is  found  in  many 
other  dkecions,  always  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  former. 
We  find  tlie  same  marked  differences  when  we  examine 
the  recomnendations  with  regard  to  the  accommodation 


66 


THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


for  the  teacher.  The  Elementary  "Teachers'  Rooms" 
and  appurtenances  are  on  a  scale  much  inferior  to  that  of 
the  "Staff  Rooms"  and  corresponding  arrangements  for 
Secondary  teachers. 

Many  of  the  differences  just  noted  are  necessary,  some 
of  them  seem  over-emphasised,  and  some  seem  rather 
arbitrary.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  two  schemes  of 
l^lanning  have  been  worked  out  independently.  It  is  none 
the  less  necessary  to  maintain  that  the  schools  of  the 
people  require  as  much  attention  and  care  in  all  that  con- 
duces to  physical  w^ell-being,  comfort,  and  individual  self- 
respect  as  those  of  the  middle  classes.  HumaMtarians 
might  reasonably  claim  that  the  Elementary  Sciool  chil- 
dren's needs  are  greater,  and  thus  require  more  attention. 


CHAPTEE  IV 

PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  CUERICULUM— ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOLS 

What  are  the  children  for  whom  the  State  has  organised 
an  educational  system  and  established  schools  to  be 
taught?  So  far  in  this  book  we  have  been  dealing  with 
mere  material  arrangements,  which  are  important  only 
because  they  make  the  work  of  educating  possible.  Now 
we  are  in  contact  with  almost  the  central  problem  of  edu- 
cation, the  solution  of  which  is  vital.  Only  one  matter  is 
more  important,  that,  namely,  of  securing  conditions 
favourable  to  the  development  of  the  spirit  which  shall  put 
life  into  the  matter  chosen  for  instruction.  Here,  how- 
ever, we  are  concerned  with  the  question  of  what  we 
should  teach. 

The  question  is  not  a  new  one  ;  it  has  exercised  the  best 
minds  from  remotest  ages,  and  although  some  approxima- 
tion to  the  truth  has  been  reached,  no  final  solution  has 
yet  been  obtained.  It  may  be  that  there  is  no  final  solu- 
tion to  it ;  the  problem  is  a  dynamic  and  not  a  static  one ; 
its  data  are  constantly  changing,  and  a  curriculum  suitable 
to-day  might  in  a  short  time  be  so  no  longer.  One  thing  is 
clear  :  it  is  essential  to  discover  some  principle  of  guidance 
which,  however  much  the  conditions  vary,  may  help  in 
determining  the  matter  of  instruction.  Our  examination 
of  the  problem  should  therefore  begin  with  the  formulation 
of  a  conception  of  the  aim  or  purpose  of  education. 

It  is  necessary  to  realise  that  no  principle  or  conception 
of  any  value  contains  within  itself  the  manner  of  its  con- 

57 


68  THE  CUKBICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

Crete  application.  Broad  principles  discoverable  as  to  the 
aim  and  purpose  of  education  can  only  afford  general  direc- 
tions ;  they  cannot  point  directly  and  immediately  to  the 
ideal  contents  of  the  curriculum.  Even  if  agreement  is 
reached  as  to  these  broad  principles,  there  will  be  various 
interpretations  of  the  methods  of  application.  Moreover, 
these  applications  will  vary  according  as  we  are  dealing 
with  the  great  masses  of  society,  with  special  groupings,  or 
with  other  widely  diverse  conditions.  We  shall  first  con- 
sider the  case  of  the  great  masses  of  children,  and  shall 
endeavour  to  discover  whether  there  is  a  central  and 
explicit  purpose  in  the  education  of  Elementary  School 
pupils.  If  this  can  be  found  it  will  serve  to  indicate  the 
general  lines  upon  which  the  curriculum  should  be  con- 
structed. 

The  necessity  of  formulating  this  aim  has,  in  recent 
years,  been  very  generally  felt,  and  many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  define  it.  Each  view  of  the  aim  has  naturally 
been  coloured  by  personal  convictions  and  philosophies 
of  life.  Some  educationists  have  decided  that  the  de- 
velopment of  the  intellectual  powers  is  the  chief  purpose 
of  education,  others  the  growth  of  personality,  others  that 
of  character;  some  efficiency  as  a  member  of  society, 
others  independence  and  reliance  upon  oneself ;  some  have 
come  to  regard  the  implanting  of  religious  feeling,  others 
the  formation  of  a  definite  theological  belief,  as  the  central 
pm"pose. 

When  the  problem  of  the  curriculum  has  been  seriously 
taken  in  hand,  these  various  ideals  have  been  used  as 
criteria  in  the  selection  of  material.  The  different 
branches  of  study  have  been  closely  scrutinised,  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  what  help  they  provide  towards  the 
achievement  of  the  particular  aim  desired.  This  scrutiny 
has  given  rise  to  a  number  of  theories  with  regard  to  edu- 
cational values  which  have  greatly  influenced  the  choice 


PBINCIPLES  OF  THE  CUERICULUM        50 

of  studies.  Some  of  these  are  true,  but  many  of  them 
contain  a  great  deal  of  error,  and  one  object  of  this  chapter 
is  to  indicate  wherein  these  theories  are  adequate  or 
inadequate. 

Education  is  regarded  by  many  as  being  directed  chiefly 
to  the  training  of  the  mind — that  is  to  say,  to  making  the 
mind  a  powerful  instrument  of  thought  capable  of  coping 
efficiently  with  any  ordinary  or  extraordinary  situations 
which  may  arise.  It  matters  less  to  these  theorists  what 
quantity  or  even  what  particular  type  of  information  or 
knowledge  is  to  be  stored  up  in  the  mind,  and  far  more 
what  particular  discipline  is  given  to  the  mind  in  the  pro- 
cess of  taking  it.  Process  and  acquired  mental  powers  are 
with  them  the  important  consideration.  This  view  is 
handicapped  by  two  circumstances.  First,  substance  can- 
not thus  be  divorced  from  process ;  knowledge  cannot  be 
absorbed  in  this  unreal  fashion ;  the  process  of  acquiring 
specific  knowledge  depends  to  a  large  degree  upon  the 
nature  of  the  subject-matter.  Second,  the  view  is  attached 
to  and  dependent  upon  an  erroneous  conception  of  the 
nature  of  the  mind  itself.  This  is  conceived  as  consisting 
of  faculties  or  general  powers,  such  as  reasoning,  memory, 
observation,  and  others.  The  phrenological  idea  of  the 
mind  is  still  quite  common,  even  such  characteristics  as 
accuracy,  industry,  and  neatness  being  regarded  as  general 
powers  or  faculties  capable  of  growth  as  wholes. 

Since  these  faculties  are  considered  to  be  indivisible 
wholes,  it  is  argued  that  the  learning  of  a  particular  sub- 
ject which  necessitates  the  constant  use  of  a  particular 
' '  faculty ' '  will  result  in  such  a  development  of  that 
faculty  that  it  can  be  employed  with  almost  or  quite  equal 
facility  and  certainty  on  any  other  material  which  involves 
its  use.  The  conception  of  education  as  the  process  of 
mind-training,  besides  laying  too  great  stress  on  the  intel- 
lectual aspect  of  mind,  was  and  is  almost  inevitably  tied 


60  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

to  this  ' '  faculty  psychology  ' '  and  to  the  theory  of  formal 
training,  and  leads  to  the  framing,  or  more  frequently  to 
the  defending,  of  a  curriculum  which  consists  of  subjects 
specially  capable,  so  it  is  supposed,  of  afi'ording  the  re- 
quired amount  of  discipline  for  each  faculty.  Thus  an 
inordinate  stress  is  put  upon  arithmetic,  and  far  too  much 
time  allotted  to  it,  because  it  is  thought  that  a  thorough 
training  in  that  subject  will  enable  the  pupil  to  deal  effec- 
tively vv^ith  all  other  problems  involving  the  use  of  this 
' '  reasoning  faculty . ' ' 

The  child  of  ten  is  still  plagued  and  worried  with  the 
abstractions  of  grammar,  because  that  subject  is  regarded 
as  "  the  logic  of  the  Elementary  School,"  and  as  capable 
of  putting  a  fine  edge  upon  the  reasoning  power.  Mind- 
training  is  made  to  appear  analogous  with  knife-sharpen- 
ing ;  in  the  latter  case,  when  sharpened,  the  knife  will  cut 
anything  of  a  certain  degree  of  hardness;  similarly,  it  is 
argued  that  the  mind,  when  trained  to  reason  in  grammar, 
will  be  able  to  reason  wherever  reasoning  is  required. 
The  fact  is  overlooked  that  the  mind  behaves  quite  diifer- 
ently  from  the  knife  ;  the  former  absorbs  and  becomes  one 
with  the  material  which  is  used  to  train  it,  as  the  knife 
does  not  with  the  sharpening  instrument. 

If  we  can  rid  ourselves  of  the  fallacy  of  formal  training, 
which  compels  the  learning  of  Latin  grammar  because  it 
is  a  fine  mental  gymnastic,  or  of  botany  because  of  its 
value  as  a  means  of  disciplining  and  enlarging  the  powers 
of  observation ,  or  of  mathematics  because  of  their  value  in 
ti'aining  accuracy  and  reasoning  power,  it  will  be  possible 
to  view  the  field  of  suggested  studies  from  a  truer  and 
simpler  point  of  view.  Ignoring  formal  values,  we  shall 
be  able  to  consider  the  values  of  the  different  kinds  of 
specific  knowledge  and  power  from  a  saner  and  more  fruit- 
ful point  of  view. 

The    subject-matter    of   instruction    should   be   selected 


PEINCIPLES  OF  THE  CUERICULUM        61 

without  any  regard  for  this  incorrect  theory.  When,  on 
grounds  to  be  considered,  the  material  has  been  selected, 
the  teacher  should  use  his  art  to  connect  and  vitalise  the 
various  facts  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  greatest 
ainount  of  training  possible. 

An  even  more  subtle  form  of  error  is  to  be  discovered  in 
the  method  of  choosing  curricula  employed  by  many  who 
start  out  with  one  of  the  truest  and  highest  conceptions  of 
education.  They  pose  the  problem  thus  :  The  ultimate 
aim  of  education  is  ethical,  the  formation  of  character;  we 
have  therefore  to  discover  which  branches  of  knowledge 
have  greatest  possibilities  in  this  direction.  Those  are  the 
branches  to  select  fii'st  and  foremost  for  the  pupil's  study  ; 
those  are  the  subjects  to  emphasise  throughout  his  school 
life.  Other  matters  are  of  minor  importance  ;  they  must 
therefore  be  scantily  treated  or  even  omitted. 

Now,  if  the  problem  were  as  simple  as  this,  these  well- 
meaning  people  would  be  justified.  But  it  is  not,  and  the 
enlightened  views  of  psychologists  and  educationists,  to- 
gether with  the  less  enlightened  tendencies  of  a  material- 
istic generation,  are  combining  to  thwart  the  application 
of  such  ideas  to  education. 

Both  those  who  hold  this  view  and  those  who  oppose  it 
consider  that  the  function  of  the  school  is  to  form  good 
men  and  women,  possessed  of  strong  wills  to  good.  In  the 
case  of  the  former  this  has  resulted  in  giving  a  large  place 
in  the  curriculum  to  the  humanities,  and  particularly  to 
biblical,  literary,  and  historical  studies.  The  Herbartians, 
for  example,  have  done  this.  Supporting  their  action  by 
means  of  a  psychological  theory  of  doubtful  validity  with 
regard  to  the  motivation  of  ideas,  they  have  tended  to 
attach  far  too  great  a  value  to  the  cultivation  of  thought 
and  too  little  to  that  of  action.  This  error  is,  however, 
not  to  be  discovered  in  their  conception  of  the  aim  of 


G2  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

education,    but    in    their   illogical    deduction    from    that 
conception. 

What  is  character?  A  thousand  difi'erent  answers  would 
be  given  to  this  question  by  a  thousand  individuals.  Some 
would  say  that  it  involves  the  possession  of  deep  religious 
convictions  applied  to  behaviour  ;  others  would  prefer  to 
signalise  strength  of  will,  others  sympathy.  And  so  the 
original  and  simple  demand  for  the  training  of  character 
becomes  an  obscure  and  pious  wish  for  something  almost 
indefinable.  It  is  impossible  to  discuss  here  more  than  the 
fringe  of  the  question.  We  will  attempt  to  find  merely  a 
few  important  points  of  agreement.  The  man  of  char- 
acter must  bo  possessed  of  ideals  which  he  is  always 
struggling  courageously  to  attain ;  his  will  to  attain  is 
strong.  These  ideals  must  be  of  an  enlightened  kind ;  no 
narrow-minded  or  bigoted  man  can  be  regarded  as  possess- 
ing a  desirable  or  complete  character.  It  is  true  that, 
speaking  loosely,  we  often  allude  even  to  a  bigot  or  a  man 
of  very  limited  knowledge  and  capacity  as  a  man  of  char- 
acter, but  it  would  be  admitted,  I  think,  that  this  is  an 
unwarrantable  use  of  the  term  ;  we  are  really  thinking 
chiefly  of  determination  of  character  rather  than  of  full 
character.  We  may  feel  admiration  for  one  noble  quality 
of  an  individual,  but  we  do  not  therefore  admire  the  whole 
character ;  we  may  even  recognise  and  lament  unmistak- 
able weaknesses  and  twists  in  the  same  person.  The  ideal 
character  which  the  educationist  has  as  his  aim  is  one 
which  is  not  radically  lacking  in  any  direction  ;  one  marked 
by  sanity,  width  of  view,  steadfastness  of  purpose,  ideality 
and  sympathy  applied  in  general  to  all  life's  many-sided 
activities.  Character  must  not  be  envisaged  as  a  part, 
because  it  is  a  whole  ;  the  strong-willed,  industrious  or 
persevering,  methodical,  [esthetic,  artistic,  and  even  really 
pious  man  is  so  characterised  with  reference  to  his  most 
prominent  qualities,  and  may  hide  many  serious  defects. 


PEINCIPLES  OF  THE  CUEEICULUM        63 

When  the  educationist,  therefore,  speaks  of  character- 
formation,  he  is  concerned  with  something  far  wider  than 
any  specially  prominent  quality ;  he  is  concerned  with  the 
whole  man.  In  other  words,  he  aims  at  a  well-balanced 
and  harmonious  whole. 

The  two  applications  we  wish  to  make  of  this  view  of 
character  are  tolerably  clear.  In  the  first  place,  no  merely 
linguistic,  or  mathematical,  or  scientific,  or  even  religious 
training,  however  inspired,  can  produce  character  in  the 
true  sense.  Each  will,  when  employed  alone,  or  when 
unduly  overweighting  other  elements  of  training,  produce 
a  one-sided  and  therefore  incomplete  character.  A 
"  whole"  character  is  formed  by  a  training  of  the  widest 
kind,  and  he  who  hopes  to  do  it  by  means  of  a  linguistic 
or  mathematical  or  religious  training  is  indulging  in  the 
same  fond  dream  that  leads  the  fonnal  trainer  to  trust  to 
grammar  or  mathematics  to  produce  a  general  power  of 
thought.  In  the  second  place,  no  one  single  fine  quality 
can  be  fully  produced  by  training  on  one  special  material ; 
industry  enforced  or  even  induced  in  one  direction  may 
appear  in  no  other;  patriotism  fed  on  history,  as  the 
English  Public  School  in  the  past  has  often  understood  it, 
may  teach  a  man  how  to  die,  but  scarcely  how  to  live  for 
his  country's  good. 

Character-training,  to  achieve  its  purpose,  must  go  on 
in  every  branch  of  study.  Omit  or  over-emphasise  one 
important  branch  of  knowledge  or  power,  and  narrowness 
results.  The  boy  or  girl  who  has  never  properly  envisaged 
the  accuracy  and  certainty  of  mathematical  truth  has 
missed  a  valuable  character-forming  ideal.  The  child  who 
has  not  been  led  through  some  study  of  the  physical  world 
to  a  love  of  Nature  has  missed  much  which  would  have 
enriched  his  character. 

Our  investigation  into  the  reasons  underlying  the  choice 
of  studies  has  disclosed  two  views,  one  of  which  is  contrary 


64  THE  CUREICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

to  fact,  and  the  other  constantly  misunderstood.  Both  are 
children  of  one  parent — that  is,  they  both  arise  from  the 
assumption  that  the  mind  consists  of  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  separate  faculties,  such  as  imagination,  reason, 
memory,  and  others,  and  that  these  faculties  may  be 
trained  in  some  specific  and  suitable  material  for  general 
use.  The  theory  of  formal  training  in  its  crude  form  is 
false ;  the  theory  that  character-formation  is  the  ultimate 
aim  of  education  is  true,  but  cannot  be  successfully  applied 
on  formal-training  lines.  An  examination  of  both  views 
leads  us  to  conclude  that  no  successful  training  can  take 
place  unless  by  means  of  the  curriculum  all  the  great 
aspects  of  life  are  faithfully  placed  before  the  pupil.  In 
a  wide  curriculum  lies  the  only  hope  of  producing  a  man 
or  woman  of  general  mental  power  and  of  real  character. 

Of  the  two  conceptions,  one  psychological  and  the  other 
ethical,  the  former  was  found  to  be  a  false  guide,  the  latter 
a  guide  capable  of  giving,  like  the  Pole  star,  the  general 
directions  only.  With  eyes  upon  the  Pole  star  it  is  pos- 
sible to  maintain  the  general  direction,  but  it  will  still  be 
necessary  to  pick  the  road,  to  decide  which  is  the  proper 
path  up  the  mountain,  where  the  river  ford  is  to  be  found. 
In  the  same  way,  the  establishment  of  the  aim  of  educa- 
tion as  ethical  is  of  fundamental  importance,  but  cannot 
settle  questions  of  material  except  in  a  most  general 
fashion. 

The  problem  of  the  curriculum  begins  to  assume  a  more 
concrete  and  practical  form  when  the  social  aspect  of  char- 
acter is  strongly  emphasised.  The  school  then  appears  as 
the  servant  and  minister  of  the  connnunity,  and  education 
as  that  which  fits  a  pupil  to  take  up  his  functions  in  the 
service  of  the  society  in  which  he  lives. 

A  valuable  aspect  of  the  educational  aim  is  here  re- 
vealed.    Character  has  been  too  often  regarded  as  a  purely 


PKINCIPLES  OF  THE  CUERICULUM        65 

personal  concern;  modern  thinkers,  especially  American, 
have  come  to  recognise  that  this  is  only  a  one-sided  view. 
The  influence  of  social  environment  upon  the  character 
and  the  reaction  of  character  upon  the  social  envii"onment 
are  facts  which  should  receive  consideration  commensurate 
with  their  importance.  Extremists  have  doubtless  over- 
emphasised these  facts,  and  in  doing  so  have,  in  the  writer's 
view,  fallen  into  various  practical  eiTors. 

There  are  obvious  dangers  in  subordinating  the  in- 
dividual to  the  needs  and  aims  of  the  community.  The 
theory  may  be  construed  as  an  acceptance  of  the  claim  of 
the  State  to  exercise  complete  control  over  what  shall  and 
shall  not  be  taught.  The  dangers  of  such  direction  in  the 
hands  of  an  autocratic  State  are  evident ;  in  a  democratic 
country,  where  the  citizens  elect  their  governors,  such 
dangers  are  less  evident,  but  they  none  the  less  exist. 
The  people's  representatives  are  rarely  elected  on  purely 
educational  questions;  never  yet  in  our  own  nation's 
history  has  such  a  question  decided,  nor  even  materially 
influenced,  an  election.  Hence  on  matters  concerning 
education  a  Government  may  hold  opinions  and  act  upon 
them  in  complete  opposition  to  the  views  and  will  of  the 
electorate.  Eeal  education  helps  to  develop  individuality, 
and  strong  individuality  sometimes  appears  to  run  counter 
to  the  interests  of  the  community  as  a  whole.  It  is  in  the 
curriculum  that  the  State  finds  a  most  powerful  ally  in 
stereotyping  thought  and  custom  by  suppressing  originality 
and  initiative ;  in  the  name  of  the  common  good  obsolete 
and  harmful  elements  are  confirmed  and  true  social  effi- 
ciency diminished. 

There  is,  moreover,  in  each  individual  both  a  social  and 
a  personal  self — a  side  that  he  may  and  does  expose  to 
public  view,  and  a  side  which  he  reserves  for  himself  and 
a  few  others.  This  deeper  and  more  intimate  self  would 
reveal  tastes  and  sympathies,  aspirations  and  ideals,  ideas 

5 


66  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

upon  life  and  death — in  fact,  a  side  of  the  human  being 
which  concerns  the  individual  far  more  than  the  com- 
munity— and  these,  especially  in  an  Englishman,  are 
regarded  as  private  and  sacred.  \Miile  these  personal 
elements  would  almost  certainly  never  have  made  their 
quiet  way  into  being  without  the  influence  of  society,  they 
nevertheless  remain  the  individual's  peculiar  possession, 
and  any  view  of  education  is  inadequate  which,  like  that 
under  consideration,  tends  to  underrate  or  ignore  their 
importance.  The  aim  of  social  eiQciency  requires  widen- 
ing by  the  inclusion  of  the  idea  of  individual  or  personal 
sufficiency. 

From  such  a  view  of  education  as  the  preceding,  which 
lays  stress  upon  the  value  of  the  individual  to  the  com- 
munity, it  may  seem  a  far  cry  to  that  which  emphasises 
the  individual's  own  material  success.  And  yet  the  two 
views  may  not  be  contrary ;  they  may  on  examination  be 
found  to  be  complementary ;  only  then  extremes  may  be 
dnectly  opposed. 

In  the  minds  of  the  extremists  education  is  conceived  as 
the  instrument  by  means  of  which  the  individual  earns  his 
livelihood  or  makes  his  way  in  the  world  among  a  host  of 
competitors.  Nations,  as  well  as  parents,  sometimes  take 
the  same  view,  and  educational  plans  are  then  made  with 
a  view  to  gaining  a  superior  position  in  the  international 
struggle  for  commercial  supremacy.  Probably  this  is  the 
most  common  view  taken  when  judging  of  the  value  or 
merits  of  a  curriculum  ;  it  is  the  view  of  ' '  the  man  in  the 
street."  Is  this  or  that  subject  useful?  is  asked.  The 
utilitarian  aspect  of  the  curriculum  is  one  that  appeals  to 
the  ordinary, commonplace, practical  person  who  wishes  to 
see  children  receive  instruction  which  can  be  put  at  once 
to  a  practical  use.  He  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  orna- 
mental, conventional  studies,  or  with  so-called  accomplish- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  CURRICULUM        67 

inents.  The  majority  of  the  people  of  Europe  and  America 
still  regard  education  in  this  way. 

One  great  difficulty  connected  with  this  view  is  to  know 
what  is  meant  by  the  term  "  useful."  Most  advocates  of 
a  utilitarian  education  think  of  it  in  terms  of  bread-and- 
butter,  and  hold  that  only  that  is  useful  which  subserves 
the  aim  of  gaining  a  livelihood.  These  people  are  gener- 
ally blind  to  the  fact  that  many  studies  which,  superficially 
examined,  appear  to  have  no  value  of  this  kind,  do  really 
contribute  to  material  success.  At  first  sight  the  reading 
and  memorising  of  good  prose  and  poetry  may  seem  useless 
for  life's  practical  purposes,  and  yet  such  studies  may  effect 
great  improvement  in  the  powers  of  speech,  and  this  in  its 
turn  may  prove  a  great  advantage  in  the  struggle  to  earn  a 
livelihood.  Thus,  too  narrow  a  view  of  utility  may  defeat 
the  aim  we  set  out  to  achieve.  But  there  is  a  far  greater 
danger  inherent  in  this  narrow  view  than  that  of  merely 
failing  to  obtain  a  good  livelihood.  It  takes  little  or  no 
account  of  the  spiritual ;  it  looks  only  at  the  material.  For 
the  inner  life,  for  the  development  of  the  man's  individu- 
ality and  of  his  higher  nature,  it  seems  to  suggest  nothing. 
We  cannot  be  satisfied  with  such  a  limited  conception  of 
life. 

Herbert  Spencer  combined  the  two  ideals  of  individual 
and  social  efficiency,  and  his  view  of  "  utility  "  was  there- 
for a  wider  one.  He  extended  its  scope  to  include  all  the 
fundamental  activities  of  life.  These  he  classified  in  the 
order  of  their  importance  as  activities  employed  in  direct 
self-preservation,  in  indirect  self-preservation  or  the  gain- 
ing of  a  livelihood,  in  rearing  a  family,  in  performing  the 
duties  of  a  citizen,  and  in  making  use  of  leisure.  Instruc- 
tion which  bore  directly  on  these  points  he  regarded  as 
useful.  Subject-matter  which  did  not  bear  directly  on 
them  he  regarded  as  useless.  As  a  sequence  from  this 
broader   notion   of    "utility,"    Spencer   put   forward   the 


68  THE  CUKEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

paramount  claims  of  science,  claims  which  he  failed  on  the 
whole  to  substantiate. 

Both  conceptions  of  education  as  a  training  for  purely 
individual  or  for  purely  social  efficiency  fail  to  satisfy ;  but 
even  when  the  narrower  meaning  is  attached,  they  have 
been,  and  still  are,  of  considerable  service  in  ensuring  that 
school  studies  shall  be  of  a  practical  kind,  bearing  directly 
upon  the  life  lived  by  the  scholars  and  upon  their  future 
activities.  We  cannot  afford  to  look  altogether  contemp- 
tuously upon  such  serviceable  guides. 

Each  of  the  theories  which  has  been  considered  presents 
a  partial  view  of  the  aims  of  the  school.  Each,  when  held 
by  persons  of  broad  and  liberal  ideas,  escapes  most  of  the 
criticism  levelled  against  it;  and  each,  held  by  normal 
ordinary  people,  tends  to  lay  an  unwarrantable  stress  on 
some  one  aspect.  Each  contains  a  great  deal  of  truth. 
Together  they  give  a  fairly  complete  view  of  what  educa- 
tion should  seek  to  do.  If,  therefore,  we  are  to  obtain  any 
guidance  in  deciding  upon  curricula  from  a  conception  of 
educational  aims,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  these  aims 
as  a  whole  into  consideration. 

Two  points  appear  to  stand  out  clearly  as  a  result  of  our 
analysis.  In  the  first  place,  all  the  theories  suggest  the 
necessity  of  a  wide  and  liberal  curriculum,  and  in  the 
second  place,  all  seem  to  assume  that  the  child  is  to  be 
taught  what  his  educators  hold  to  be  good  for  him. 

First,  all  the  theories  suggest  the  need  of  a  wide  and 
liberal  curriculum.  Now  that  it  is  known  that  mental 
power  gained  by  practice  on  specific  material  may  be,  and 
usually  is,  confined  within  the  limits  of  that  specific 
material,  or  is  usable  but  little  beyond  it,  the  conclusion  is 
inevitable  that  no  one  or  two  special  subjects  can  be 
allowed  to  monopolise  the  school  curriculum.  If  powers, 
largely  confined  in  then-  application  to  the  problems  upon 


PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  CURRICULUM        69 

which  they  were  trained,  are  to  become  available  in  the 
general  life  of  the  pupil,  he  must  at  school  be  made 
familiar  with  the  general  experiences  of  mankind.  No 
great  phase  of  human  culture  may  be  unrepresented  in 
the  curriculum. 

It  has  already  been  seen  that  character,  using  the  term 
in  its  proper  sense,  involves  width — that,  ideally,  it  in- 
volves knowledge  of  a  wide  kind,  moral  power,  and  a  large 
number  of  qualities  only  acquired  by  coming  into  contact 
with  many  sides  of  life.  School  and  life  both  take  as 
their  ideal  the  well-balanced  character,  and  one  of  the 
many  conditions  under  which  such  a  character  may  grow 
is  that  the  experiences  of  school  life  shall  be  many-sided 
and  typical  of  real  life.  Moreover,  it  has  been  shown  that 
no  one  quality  of  character,  such  as  industry  or  patriotism, 
can  develop  in  its  best  form  except  when  it  finds  constant 
stimulus  from,  and  application  in,  all  the  more  typical 
situations  of  life.  The  quality  of  industry,  for  example, 
may  first  show  itself  in  one  particular  corner  of  school 
experience,  but  requires  for  its  proper  gTowth  opportun- 
ities of  exercise  in  many  other  departments  of  experience. 
Only  a  wide  and  liberal  curriculum  can  supply  these 
opportunities.  Thus,  from  whatever  legitimate  point  of 
view  we  look  at  character,  we  find  it  to  a  great  degree 
dependent  for  its  growth  upon  wide  experience,  and  we 
are  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  school  curriculum 
must  present  the  accumulated  and  representative  experi- 
ences of  mankind. 

If  the  conception  of  education  as  the  instrument  for 
producing  social  efficiency  be  considered,  the  same  con- 
clusion follows.  The  ideal  citizen  must  be  conversant, 
according  to  his  capacity,  with  the  culture  of  his  time  ;  the 
citizen  whose  sole  school  education  has  consisted  of  the 
three  R's  or  of  the  classical  languages  cannot  adequately 
use  his  opportunities  as  a  useful  member  of  society.    One 


70  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

of  the  great  agencies  by  which  a  wide  outlook  upon  Hfe  is 
developed  is  the  curriculuin,  and  lack  of  width  in  it  can- 
not be  compensated  by  "training,"  however  expert  and 
specialised  it  may  be.  To  act  their  various  parts  in  life, 
ordinary  persons  must  learn  them. 

The  theory  of  utihty  leads  to  the  same  conclusion.  The 
interconnectedness  of  knowledge  is  becoming  more  and 
more  evident ;  no  so-called  useful  subject-matter  can  be 
properly  grasped  without  a  knowledge  and  an  unde^'stand- 
ing  of  matters  that  at  first  seem  quite  remote  from  it.  A 
wide  cmTiculum  is  again  found  to  be  the  condition  of  secur- 
ing even  bread-and-butter  aims. 

The  second  point  suggested  by  our  examination  of 
educational  aims  is  that  the  whole  problem  is  being  looked 
at,  not  from  the  child's  point  of  view,  but  from  that  of  the 
adult.  "  You  shall  eat  what  is  good  for  you,"  the  parent 
says,  and  the  teacher  imitates  him  by  saying,  "  You  shall 
learn  what  is  good  for  you,"  and  too  often  the  good  is  of 
a  medicinal  rather  than  a  savoury  quality. 

There  are  clearly  two  factors  involved  in  the  problem, 
namely,  the  environment — human  and  material — and  the 
child.  Sometimes  the  theorist  has  concentrated  his  atten- 
tion upon  the  envir'onment,  and  has  failed  to  take  into 
account  the  knowledge,  capacities,  interests,  and  needs  of 
the  child  ;  the  result  has  been  seen  in  a  curriculum  which 
has  no  organic  connection  with  child  life.  Sometimes  the 
theorist  has  directed  all  his  attention  to  the  nature  of  the 
child — his  interests,  purposes,  spontaneous  activities — 
and  has  neglected  to  do  justice  to  the  environment  and  the 
pressing  need  for  adaptation  to  its  modern  complexities ; 
here  the  effect  is  seen  in  a  curriculum  characterised  by 
lack  of  system,  an  unordered  scheme  of  work  correspond- 
ing with  the  children's  transitory  desires  and  purposes, 
one  incapable  of  natural  development  into  the  pursuits  and 
purposes  of  adult  life.     As  Professor  Dewey  says,  "  If  we 


PEINCIPLES  OF  THE  CURRICULUM        71 

isolate  the  children's  present  inclinations,  purposes,  and 
experiences  from  the  place  they  occupy  and  the  part  they 
have  to  perform  in  a  developing  experience,  all  stand  on 
the  same  level ;  all  alike  are  equally  good  and  equally 
bad."^ 

The  error  of  emphasising  the  environment  is  generally 
made  by  those  who  have  never  taught  children  ;  thus,  out- 
side the  profession  there  is  a  reiterated  demand  for  in- 
struction of  a  practical  kind  v^hich  shall  enable  the  boy  or 
girl  leaving  school  at  fourteen  to  adapt  himself  or  herself 
easily  to  the  occupations  of  industrial  and  commercial  life. 
Some  employers  and  business  men  ask  that  the  pupil 
shall  come  to  them  provided  with  certain  fundamental 
knowledge  ;  others  that  he  should  possess,  not  knowledge, 
but  fundamental  powers  of  thinking.  There  is  some 
reason  in  the  first  demand,  for  the  schools  do  not  always 
teach  fundamentals,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  ask  that  they 
should.  In  the  second  demand  there  is  less  reason,  for 
the  teacher  cannot  provide  intelligence,  nor  can  intelli- 
gence be  cultivated  in  vacuo.  It  may  be,  however,  that 
the  business  man  has  put  his  finger  upon  a  grave  fault  of 
our  school  work — it  is  often  impractical  and  remote  from 
real  life. 

The  error  of  over-emphasising  the  child's  nature — his 
spontaneous  activities,  non-permanent  interests,  and  pur- 
poses— in  its  bearing  on  the  planning  of  school  curricula 
is  generally  confined  to  educationists.  At  its  worst  it  is 
as  if  the  teacher  should  ask  his  pupils  what  they  would 
like  to  learn  or  do,  and,  having  obtained  the  interesting 
information,  should  call  it  the  curriculum.  The  Tolstoyan 
school  was  an  example  of  this  concentration  upon  the 
child-nature,  to  the  detriment  of  the  other  factor. 

It  is  clear  that  both  environment  and  child  must  be 

*  Dewey,  "The  School  and  the  Child,"  p.  28,  edited  by  J.  ,T.  Findlay. 
Blackie  and  Son. 


72  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

adequately  considered.  The  problem  of  giving  each  factor 
proper  consideration  is  not  really  a  double  one,  any  more 
than  is  a  problem  in  arithmetic  which  contains  two  pieces 
of  data,  and  it  is  scarcely  a  reasonable  way  of  regarding 
the  matter  to  pose  the  question  as  to  which  factor  requires 
the  greater  consideration.  The  knowledge  and  activities 
of  adult  life  have  their  roots  in  the  knowledge  and  activ- 
ities of  child  life,  and  these,  again,  in  the  instincts  of 
infant  life.  There  is  a  continuous  line  of  development 
from  the  earliest  forms  of  mental  life  and  its  expression  to 
the  thoughts  and  pursuits  of  the  man  or  woman.  This  is 
far  from  saying  that  every  infantile  instinct,  every  childish 
tendency,  purpose,  desire,  or  activity,  is  of  value  educa- 
tionally and  can  be  made  to  develop  into  some  form  of 
complete  living.  Some  are  the  creatures  of  a  day  and 
quickly  perish.  The  development  of  the  race  shows  the 
same  characteristics — i.e.,  impulses  and  movements  in- 
dicative of  momentary  interests,  purposeless  activities, 
and  transitorily  felt  needs  which  did  not  lie  in  the  line  of 
progress.  Hence  it  is  essential  to  distinguish  between  the 
infinitely  varying  expressions  of  child  thought,  desire,  and 
impulse.  Some  are  the  growing  points  of  the  plant, 
others  are  only  withering  bracts. 

The  task  is  therefore  to  discover  what  are  the  funda- 
mentals of  knowledge  and  power  which  every  English  boy 
and  girl  needs  for  the  purpose  of  coping  efficiently  with 
the  common  experiences  of  life,  whether  of  a  private  or 
public  nature.  Then  we  have  to  discover  the  germs  of 
these  fundamentals  in  the  instinctive  curiosities  and 
activities  of  the  child,  the  moments  when  they  make  their 
appearance  and  when  they  ripen. 

Attempts  have  repeatedly  been  made  to  ascertain  what 
are  the  fundamentals  of  our  present  culture,  and  the 
moments  when  the  child  is  himself  ready  to  enter  upon 
successive  stages  of  his  inheritance.     Almost  every  educa- 


PEINCIPLES  OF  THE  CUEEICULUM        73 

tionist  of  recent  times  has  concerned  himself  with  this 
problem,  but  until  it  is  attacked  in  a  co-operative  way  no 
solution  will  be  forthcoming.  The  work  is  so  immense 
that  no  individual  can  attempt  it  with  any  hope  of  success  ; 
hence  the  common-sense  alternative  appears  to  be  that  the 
experience  and  knowledge  of  the  most  expert  and  experi- 
enced representatives  of  present  national  culture  should 
now  be  made  use  of  for  this  purpose. 

The  teaching  profession  has  not  until  recent  years  been 
sufficiently  organised  to  be  capable  of  undertaking  this 
work.  To-day  it  is,  and  with  the  aid  of  psychologists, 
local  and  central  educational  advisers,  and  representatives 
of  the  most  important  social,  industrial,  and  business 
activities  of  the  community,  could  produce  an  approxim- 
ately satisfactorily  solution  of  the  enigma  which  has 
baffled  the  best  minds  of  all  times,  and  which  to-day 
greatly  diminishes  the  effectiveness  of  school  education. 
Teachers  would  naturally  exert  the  preponderating  in- 
fluence in  such  a  council. 

Experience  and  theory  based  on  research  afford  such  a 
body  of  experts  one  general  guidance  in  their  task.  It  has 
now  been  definitely  established  that  the  sources  of  the 
child's  future  knowledge  and  power  lie  in  his  spontaneous 
activities ;  that  the  foundations  of  abstract  thought  are  to 
be  found  in  his  childish  interests  and  purposes  expressed 
in  acts.  The  most  primitive  forms  of  mental  life,  with  its 
threefold  aspect  of  cognition,  feeling,  and  conation,  are 
the  instincts,  and  these  utter  themselves  in  movement  or 
some  kind.  In  the  manifold  forms  of  expression  we  shall 
find  the  germs  of  complete  living,  the  fundamentals  of 
present  culture.  In  planning  the  curriculum,  therefore, 
this  root  principle  will  be  in  constant  evidence  and  will  be 
constantly  applied.  At  present  it  is  recognised  as  vital  in 
framing  the  scheme  of  work  for  infants  and  mental  defec- 
tives ;  as  the  age  of  the  child  increases  the  principle  tends 


74  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

to  fall  into  disuse.  Thus  only  can  we  account  for  the 
break  in  continuity  between  the  education  of  the  infant 
and  that  of  older  children.  In  the  latter  it  shows  a  tend- 
ency towards  bookishness  and  lecturino-,  and  the  pnpils, 
conscious  that  their  school  studies  do  not  touch  their  lives 
at  vital  points,  lose  interest  and  hope. 


CHAPTEE  V 

THE  CURRICULUM— ELEMENTARY 

Every  child  has  the  right  to  an  education  which  at  least 
supplies  him  with  a  minimum  of  the  cultural  elements 
which  constitute  the  inheritance  of  his  race.  These 
elements  exist  in  germ  in  him,  and  show  their  presence 
at  different  stages  in  his  development.  Hence  the  special 
duty  of  the  educationist  and  psychologist  is  to  study  the 
developing  mind  of  the  child  by  means  of  the  indications 
afforded  by  the  various  forms  of  expression,  and  so  dis- 
cover the  appropriate  moment  for  presenting  to  him  new 
aspects  of  the  environmental  facts  and  processes.  The 
child  will  indicate,  directly  or  indirectly,  which  of  the 
typical  aspects  he  is  ready  to  assimilate,  and  how  he  can 
most  easily  do  so. 

The  necessity  for  this  study  of  the  child  is  becoming 
more  and  more  apparent.  Much  valuable  work  has 
already  been  done,  but  the  field  is  so  vast  that  it  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  the  work  is  scarcely  begun.  Now 
and  then  some  explorer  into  the  unknown — a  Montessori 
or  a  Stanley  Hall^ — discovers  hitherto  hidden  phases  of 
child  nature,  and  thereby  suggests  new  possibilities  in 
education.  The  ordinary  teacher  is  not  exempt  from  the 
same  necessity  ;  he  too  must  constantly  explore  the  minds 
he  deals  with  in  order  to  know  what  and  how  he  shall 
teach.  He  may  not  be  called  upon  to  lay  down  the  mini- 
mum requirements,  but  he  cannot  teach  these  intelligently 
and  sympathetically  unless  he  understands  the  principles 
and  facts  which  have  led  to  their  selection  ;  moreover, 
he  has  constantly  to  decide  what  he  shall  teach,  for  a 

75 


76  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

minimum  cumcnlum  can  never  do  more  than  suggest  the 
outlines  of  the  matter  of  instruction. 

Certain  facts  of  child  life  have  heen  ascertained,  and 
we  shall  now  hriefly  indicate  them  for  the  purpose  of 
guidance  in  building  up  a  scientific  curriculum.  At  about 
three  years  of  age  the  normal  child  can  Walk,  talk,  and  in 
general  comport  himself  like  a  miniature  human  being  ;  he 
is  no  longer  a  baby,  but  an  infant,  and  the  State  ordains 
that  he  may  enter  upon  school  life.  When  he  gives  signs 
of  readiness  to  pass  from  primary  to  secondary  interests 
— from  seeing  and  hearing  things  to  reading  about  them, 
from  saying  things  to  writing  about  them — when  he  can 
attempt  to  do  these  things  without  injury  to  eye  or  hand, 
to  sit  at  such  work  in  desks  for  somewhat  prolonged 
periods  without  detriment  to  his  body,  he  is  no  longer  an 
infant.  This  period  is  reached  ordinarily  between  the 
sixth  and  seventh  year,  and  this  moment  will  therefore  be 
chosen  for  placing  him  in  that  section  of  the  school  where 
these  tendencies  can  be  afforded  proper  scope.  None  the 
less,  we  have  to  guard  against  the  idea  that  this  period 
witnesses  anything  like  a  complete  break  in  the  little 
human  being's  development.  It  is  certainly  a  great 
change,  but  it  is  a  change  which  has  been  slowly  taking 
place  long  before  it  is  visible,  and  will  not  be  complete  for 
years  after  it  has  appeared.  Too  often  the  period  is  treated 
as  if  it  were  a  real  moment  of  time,  which,  when  passed, 
presents  us  with  a  quite  different  individual,  resembling 
in  intelligence  and  capacity  the  youthful  figure  of  Christ 
in  so  many  of  the  old  masters'  pictures  of  "  The  Madonna 
and  Child." 

At  the  very  beginning  of  life  the  human  being  comes 
into  direct  contact  with  the  world  of  sense.  Through  the 
medium  of  his  sensations  he  at  once  begins  to  gain  first- 
hand concrete  experience.     He  opens  his  eyes  and  sees 


THE  CUKEICULUM— ELEMENTABY         77 

what  his  quite  undeveloped  mind  allows  him  to  see ;  he 
hears  something,  he  knows  not  what;  he  touches  himself 
and  other  objects,  and  is  more  or  less  aware  of  change. 
Until  other  factors  begin  to  play  their  part,  the  world  is 
to  him  as  Professor  James  suggests,  "a  big,  blooming, 
buzzing  confusion."  None  the  less,  it  is  first-hand  experi- 
ence, and  the  foundation  of  all  future  knowledge. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  life,  too,  the  human  being 
reacts  upon  his  sense  experiences.  Contact  of  the  hand 
with  an  object  brings  about  an  instinctive  movement  of 
clutching,  and  the  baby  fingers  close  around  it.  The 
muscles  of  the  neck  will  presently  turn  the  head  in  order 
to  see  and  hear  better ;  he  will  even  learn  to  sniff  in  order 
to  increase  the  intensity  of  odours.  Without  reaction  to 
sensations  there  is  no  resulting  perception.  Psychologists 
and  teachers  are  learning  to  attach  increasing  importance 
to  this  aspect  of  the  mental  life,  and  to  perceive  the  vital 
necessity  of  combining  reception  with  expression. 

This  receptive-reactive  process  is  concerned  at  first  with 
the  immediate  environment.  When  this  has  been  ex- 
hausted, so  far  as  the  child  mind  is  capable  of  exhausting 
its  almost  infinite  variety,  the  remoter  environment  exer- 
cises its  attractive  force.  At  a  certain  well-marked  stage, 
too,  the  power  of  speech  comes,  and  widens  the  child's 
horizon  far  beyond  the  narrow  circle  created  by  the  senses. 

In  the  education  of  the  infant  we  shall  follow  the  lead 
thus  given  by  himself.  Man,  Nature,  and  the  common 
objects  used  in  the  school,  and  in  the  household  we  shall 
employ  as  the  material  for  his  observation — at  first  the 
more  striking  flowers  and  animals  and  human  beings 
around  him,  and  then,  as  speech  develops,  the  second- 
hand material  found  in  literary  and  historical  stories  and 
in  tales  of  the  little  people  of  other  lands.  From  amongst 
this  subject-matter  he  will  also  develop  his  first  feelings 
for  beauty. 


78  THE  CUKEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

At  first  it  will  be  necessary,  in  following  the  guidance  of 
Nature,  to  encourage  the  reactions  of  the  larger  muscles. 
The  infant  will  spend  a  very  large  part  of  his  school  time 
in  free  play  and  in  games,  in  tumbling,  crawling,  running, 
and  dancing ;  gradually  he  will  bring  his  smaller  muscles 
into  play,  achieving  finer  adjustments.  He  will  therefore 
be  given  opportunities  of  handling  and  of  carrying,  of 
performing  useful  activities  with  common  utensils  and 
small  furniture.  He  will  be  introduced  to  games  which 
require  some  hand  dexterity;  he  will  draw,  paint,  and 
model.  At  the  same  time  he  will,  in  story-telling,  in 
dramatisation,  recitation  and  singing,  satisfy  his  craving 
for  expression  through  speech  and  gesture. 

So  far — that  is,  up  to  about  the  age  of  six  or  six  and  a 
half — the  child  has  given  no  sign  that  he  desires  to  imitate 
his  older  friends,  who,  even  to  his  infantile  understand- 
ing, aj)pear  to  be  getting  interesting  information  out  of 
books  by  reading.  The  concrete  envkonment  has  absorbed 
all  his  attention.  Eeading  is  a  non-natural  activity,  and 
in  spite  of  the  often  wonderful  success  achieved  by 
Madame  Montessori  in  teaching  Italian  childi'en  to  read 
and  write  their  own  language  at  a  very  early  age,  English, 
German,  French,  and  American  educationists  are  becom- 
ing more  and  more  convinced  that  such  work  should  not 
be  begun  before  six  years  of  age.  Apart  from  Madame 
Montessori's  own  genius  as  a  teacher,  it  may  be  that  the 
phonetic  nature  of  the  Italian  language  and  the  quickly 
ripening  powers  of  the  Italian  child  constitute  conditions 
which  distinguish  the  Italian  problem  from  our  own. 
Speech  must  first  become  certain,  and  the  understanding 
of  speech.  There  is  no  need  to  hurry ;  the  process  of 
learning  to  read  is  beset  with  so  many  difficulties  that 
unless  the  psychological  moment  is  seized  upon  and  a 
method  employed  which  grows  out  of  the  child's  mental 
attitude,  the  power  will  be  acquired  in  opposition  to  his 


THE  CUEEICULUM— ELEMENTAKY         79 

natural  tendencies.  Writing  and  reading  are  naturally 
taught  together ;  it  is  therefore  suggested  that  both  should 
be  entu'ely  excluded  from  the  period  of  infancy.  We 
would,  indeed,  choose  this  moment  of  transition  from  the 
natural  to  the  symbolic  to  mark  the  end  of  infancy. 

The  comprehension  of  number  is  in  quite  a  different 
category.  Without  any  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  children  pick  up  ideas  of  number.  They  gain 
elementary  notions  of  size,  weight,  length,  distance  and 
shape,  in  passing  from  one  object  to  another,  in  carrying 
and  handling  ;  games  and  occupations  lead  naturally  to  the 
earliest  ideas  of  arithmetic  and  geometry.  Apart,  how- 
ever, from  their  games  and  occupations,  infants  have  no 
interest  in  number ;  hence  whatever  work  of  this  kind  is 
undertaken  vv'ill  have  to  be  incidental. 

We  may  therefore  summarise  the  school  curriculum  for 
infants  in  the  manner  shown  on  p.  80. 

After  infancy  the  body  and  the  mind  undergo  further 
changes,  which,  if  thoroughly  understood,  serve  to  guide 
the  educator  in  the  choice  of  studies.  Between  the  ages 
of  six  and  a  half  and  nine,  the  same  impulses  of  imitation 
and  play,  the  same  instinct  of  curiosity  and  love  of 
imagery,  carry  the  child  farther  along  the  road  to  know- 
ledge and  power.  The  ability  to  direct  and  control  his 
movements  increases;  he  is  no  longer  content  with  mere 
activity,  but  demands  definite  results;  he  desires  to  im- 
prove his  power.  He  begins  to  envisage  a  wider  environ- 
ment, and,  his  power  of  concentrating  attention  augment- 
ing, he  sees  more  of  the  details  of  objects.  Experiments 
go  to  show  that  the  child  of  this  age  regards  objects  very 
largely  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  use  or  of  the  activity 
that  can  be  exerted  upon  them ;  he  is  chiefly  interested  in 
the  dynamic  qualities  of  things.  He  is  still  an  individual- 
ist, although  less  so  than  during  the  period  of  infancy; 
thus  group  work   and   group  games  naturally   begin   to 


THE  CUKKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


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THE  CUEBICULUM— ELEMENTARY         81 

appear,  and  will  play  a  constantly  growing  part  in  his 
education.  Summing  up  briefly,  we  may  say  that  during 
this  period  the  teacher  will  continue  to  direct  his  efforts 
tov/ards  the  training  of  the  senses,  of  the  motor  powers, 
of  expression,  and  of  memory,  and  will  take  care  not  to 
demand  more  thought  than  is  natural  at  this  stage. 

From  the  age  of  nine  to  the  period  of  puberty  reason 
begins  to  exercise  a  preponderating  influence.  Mathe- 
matical and  logical  sequences  are  followed  less  for  the  prac- 
tical result  and  more  for  the  interest  in  the  process.  This 
development  of  the  reasoning  powers  proceeds  more  and 
more  rapidly  until  the  later  adolescent  period,  when  the 
whole  universe  may  become  the  field  of  thought.  During 
the  pre-adolescent  period,  however,  we  shall  not  expect  to 
see  this  fruition ;  reason  will  be  intermixed  with  unreason 
and  mere  imitation,  the  latter,  however,  now  being  the 
result  less  of  perception  than  of  conception.  The  collect- 
ing instinct  appears  and  produces  activities  which  may 
become  of  educational  value.  The  group  spirit,  too,  with 
all  the  social  development  it  entails,  becomes  more  and 
more  marked  ;  football  and  cricket  and  co-operative  school 
work  are  expressions  of  it,  and  these  often  form  back- 
grounds for  the  still  concrete  ideals  of  the  period. 

The  facts  just  noted  will  decide  what  elements  of  general 
culture  shall  comprise  the  minimum  fundamentals  of  the 
curriculum  between  infancy  and  adolescence.  We  have 
in  these  facts  indications  as  to  the  nature  and  complexity 
of  the  items,  of  the  order  in  which  these  should  be  pre- 
sented, and  even  of  the  methods  by  which  they  can  best 
be  taught.  The  widening  social  life  of  the  child,  the 
abating  influence  of  the  immediate  environment,  and  bis 
propensity  to  imitate  adult  activities,  lead  naturally  to 
instruction  in  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing.  Specially 
expert  and  sympathetic  teachers  have  proved  beyond  doubt 
that  the  teaching  of  these  symbolic  arts  can,  by  following 

6 


82  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

closely  the  line  of  the  child's  interests,  become  a  natural 
and  therefore  a  pleasant  process.  First  and  second  hand 
observational  work — i.e.,  direct  observation  and  acquire- 
ment of  knowledge  through  the  medium  of  speech  and 
books — undergoes  expansion  into  Nature-study,  which 
develops  on  the  one  side  into  what  is  known  as  physical 
geography,  and  on  the  other  into  the  deeper  study  of  man, 
this  taking  the  forms  of  political  and  social  geography, 
literature,  history,  Bible-study,  and  hygiene.  Practical 
arithmetic  and  practical  geometry — the  latter  much 
neglected  in  the  schools — will  be  carried  a  stage  farther, 
the  material  corresponding  with  the  perceivable  environ- 
ment. 

A  word  of  warning  seems  necessary  with  regard  to  the 
teaching  of  arithmetic.  Every  child  feels  a  need  for  the 
power  of  calculating,  and  so  long  as  we  do  not  exaggerate 
the  importance  of  arithmetic  beyond  the  practical  neces- 
sities of  the  actual  and  foreshadowed  life  of  the  child,  all 
will  be  well.  But  owing  to  the  prevalent  misconception 
as  to  its  value  in  affording  general  logical  training,  a  mis- 
conception which  was  formerly  shared  by  educational 
administrators  and  expressed  by  grants  paid  upon  the  three 
R's,  it  still  occupies  a  far  too  prominent  position  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  Elementary  School. 

With  increasing  strength  the  child's  reactions  will  be 
given  opportunities  of  development  in  drill  and  gymnastics 
and  in  swimming ;  individual  and  group  contests  will 
demonstrate  the  growth  of,  and  will  help  to  develop,  the 
personal  and  the  social  self.  The  smaller  muscles  will 
find  natural  training  in  drawing,  modelling,  and  carving ; 
woodwork,  and  later  on  metalwork,  needlework,  and  house- 
wifery, will  be  gradually  introduced  as  common  and  im- 
portant elements  of  communal  life.  Occupations  under- 
taken, not  merely  from  utilitarian  motives,  but  for  pure 
enjoyment,   will   fill    a  not   unimportant  place.     Artistic 


THE  CUEEICULUM— ELEMENTAKY         83 

appreciation  and  artistic  occupations  depend  so  largely 
upon  each  other  and  form  together  such  a  valuable  and 
cherished  part  of  the  human  inheritance  that  the  school 
cannot  afford  to  ignore  either.  A  very  wide  choice  will  be 
offered  in  order  to  give  free  scope  for  individual  preferences 
and  tastes ;  one  child  wall  enjoy  one  thing  greatly,  another 
some  other;  most  will  find  some  joy  in  all.  The  larger 
muscles  will  therefore  be  exercised  in  dancing  and 
rhythmic  movements;  the  smaller  in  drawing,  painting, 
modelling,  and  carving ;  the  voice  in  singing.  In  an 
atmosphere  of  freedom  and  enjoyment,  the  seeds  of  appre- 
ciation possessed  by  every  normal  child  may  grow  and 
finally  blossom  into  appreciation  of  natural  beauty,  the 
beauty  of  literature,  music,  song,  pictures,  and  architec- 
ture. The  world  is  full  of  beauty ;  it  is  therefore  only 
necessary  to  clear  away  as  far  as  is  possible  the  barrier 
between  the  school  and  the  world. 

The  scheme  of  fundamentals  may  be  summarised  as  in 
the  following  table  (p.  64). 


84 


THE  CUBEICUL.A  OF  SCHOOLS 


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CHAPTER  VI 
THE   FLEXIBLE   CUHRICULUM 

A  VERY  reasonable  demand  is  often  made  that  the  curricu- 
lum should  be  flexible,  and  the  assunii^tion  underlying  this 
demand  is  that  schools  and  scholars  have  varying  needs. 
The  rural  school,  it  is  said,  must  be  treated  quite  differ- 
ently from  the  town  school ;  the  slum  school  from  the 
' '  respectable ' '  suburban  school ;  the  school  of  a  manufac- 
turing from  that  of  a  commercial  or  agricultural  com- 
munity. Based  on  the  same  idea,  the  assertion  is  made 
that  the  poor  scholar  must  have  a  different  curriculum  from 
his  better-class  neighbour ;  that  the  child  who  will  leave 
school  for  work  directly  he  is  permitted  by  the  Education 
Authority  has  educational  needs  of  a  kind  differing  from 
those  of  the  child  who  will  remain  at  school  until  nearly 
fifteen,  or  will  pass  into  some  higher  type  of  educational 
institution.  The  problem  we  have  to  face,  therefore,  is 
that  of  determining  to  what  extent  the  principles  govern- 
ing the  choice  of  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  and  their 
applications  should  be  modified  as  a  result  of  these  differ- 
ences betv/een  various  types  of  schools  and  scholars. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  flexibility  in  the  curriculum  is 
essential  if  we  are  to  respond  successfully  to  the  needs  of 
differing  individuals  and  communities.  There  is  no 
special  and  complete  diet  which  may  be  forced  upon  all, 
irrespective  of  nature  or  environment. 

Little  danger  exists  at  present  that  we  shall  attempt  to 
do  this.  In  no  country  in  the  world  has  such  infinite 
variety  been  permitted  as  in  our  own.  Every  type  of 
school  has  framed  its  own  home-made  curriculum,  and 

85 


86  THE  CUEKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

nearly  every  single  school  has  used  its  liberty  similarly. 
Each  head-teacher  di'aws  up  his  own  curriculum  in  har- 
mony with  his  own  general  views  on  education,  the  par- 
ticular needs  of  the  locality  and  school,  the  special  capacity 
of  his  staff,  and,  naturally,  his  own  idiosyncrasies.  If 
possessed  of  an  active  or  creative  mind,  he  may  introduce 
"  new  ideas,"  good  or  bad ;  if  uncreative,  he  may  content 
himself  with  the  syllabuses  inherited  from  his  predeces- 
sors. Under  existing  conditions  of  almost  complete  free- 
dom we  appear  to  have  reached  the  extreme  of  flexibility 
and  variety. 

But  the  broad  outlines  of  knowledge  and  the  general 
activities  of  mankind  do  not  greatly  vary  in  the  com-se  of 
a  few  years  or  within  the  geographical  limits  of  our  com- 
mon country.  Since  physical  science  entered  on  its  real 
heritage,  scientific  principles  have  undergone  but  little 
change.  The  instincts,  needs,  and  occupations  of  children 
and  adults  have  not  appreciably  deviated  from  ancient 
paths ;  they  could  be  stated  to-day  in  general  terms  in 
language  almost  identical  with  that  of  much  earlier  times 
in  the  world's  history.  In  his  essential  nature  and  de- 
mands upon  life  the  town  child  differs  very  little  from  the 
rural  child;  every  English  child,  whatever  his  local  en- 
vironment, has  the  same  general  cultural  needs. 

To  illustrate  the  point,  let  us  take  a  possible  item  of  the 
school  material  of  instruction — the  generation  and  use  of 
electric  power.  A  normal  city  child  takes  a  natural  interest 
in  the  tram,  and  is  curious  to  know  by  what  means  it  is 
propelled.  Another  child  from  a  different  environment 
has  never  seen  a  tram,  but  desires  to  understand  how  the 
motor-car  or  army  lorry  passes  so  swiftly  through  his  vil- 
lage. Another  wishes  to  know  how  the  electric  light  in 
his  school  works.  Although  each  pupil  will  start  his 
enquiries  from  a  different  jx>int,  they  do  not  require  a 
different  science  syllabus ;  all  three  have  to  master  the 


THE  FLEXIBLE  CUEEICULUM  87 

same  principles,  and  the  experienced  teacher  makes  use 
of  tram  or  car  or  light  merely  as  illustrations;  in  fact, 
■these  are  part  of  his  method  of  teaching  an  important  item 
of  the  cm'riculum. 

Hence  it  is  wrong  to  lay  too  great  stress  upon  changing 
or  varying  conditions  of  hfe ;  they  must,  it  is  true,  be  taken 
into  consideration,  but  the  fundamental  part  of  the  curri- 
culum will  remain  much  the  same ;  stability  will  be  its 
essential  characteristic.  The  flexibility  so  often  recom- 
mended for  the  curriculum  is  much  more  in  place  as  a 
characteristic  of  the  inetJiod  of  teaching. 

We  may  obtain  confirmation  of  this  view  from  the 
further  consideration  that,  in  seeking  to  bring  all  our 
scholars  into  vital  relations  with  the  fundamental  elements 
of  general  English  culture,  we  shall  find  it  necessary  to 
include  and  even  lay  stress  upon  elements  which  the 
innnediate  envkonment  fails  to  provide.  Thus,  while 
the  immediate  envkonment  of  the  rural  child  will  suggest 
illustrations  and  special  methods  of  exposition,  a  cm'ricu- 
lum  will  be  needed  in  which  the  elements  of  life  outside 
the  rural  areas  definitely  appear.  In  this  way  there  is  no 
real  opposition  between  two  apparently  contradictory  re- 
commendations—viz., that  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  take 
interest  in  and  see  more  deeply  into  his  familiar  surround- 
ings, and  that  he  should  find  in  the  school  curriculum 
some  compensation  for  the  absence  of  certain  fundamental 
sides  of  local  life.  The  same  principle  applies  in  the 
case  of  the  town  scholar.  The  school  must  do  all  it  can 
to  fill  in  the  blanks  in  the  experiences  of  the  children  of 
slum  schools,  and  the  curriculum  of  such  schools  will  differ 
somewhat  from  that  of  schools  attended  by  more  fortunate 
children.  The  same  historical,  geographical,  arithmetical, 
and  other  material  will,  with  a  few  necessary  modifica- 
tions, be  presented,  but  it  will  be  the  methods  of  presenta- 
tion, and  not  the  curriculum  itself,  which  will  show  the 


88  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

greater  differences.  These  two  classes  of  scholars  cannot 
be  appealed  to  in  the  same  way ;  the  familiar  objects  and 
experiences  of  the  one  cannot  be  used  with  the  other  class 
for  illustrating  the  principles  taught.  Each  will  apper- 
ceive  the  fundamentals  of  general  life  in  a  way  condi- 
tioned by  his  past  experience,  and  it  is  the  function  of  the 
teacher's  method  to  render  this  apperception  possible  and 
easy. 

It  is  true  that  the  children  of  the  poor,  owing  to  dis- 
advantageous conditions  of  life,  are  usually  somewhat 
"behind"  children  living  under  more  favourable  condi- 
tions in  attainments  and  capacity.  But  the  solution  of 
this  difficulty  is  to  be  found  chiefly  in  small  variations  of 
the  curriculum,  in  differing  rates  of  promotion,  and  in  the 
introduction  of  suitable  methods  of  teaching.  The  hand- 
work which  is  generally  given  in  larger  quantities  to  poorer 
children  should  be  not  so  much  new  or  different  work  as 
the  vehicle  of  a  new  and  more  suitable  method  of  teaching 
the  same  subject-matter.  The  same  geography,  arith- 
metic, and  historjs  with  slight  modifications  in  detail,  will 
be  presented  to  children  suffering  from  poverty  and  its 
resulting  disabilities  as  to  the  others,  but  will  be  treated 
in  a  more  concrete  way  through  the  medium  of  handwork. 

The  present  practice  of  each  head-teacher  making  his 
own  curriculum  results,  apart  from  its  imperfections  as 
the  work  of  an  individual,  in  many  obvious  disadvantages. 
There  is  no  means  of  easily  determining  what  kind  and 
amount  of  knowledge  a  child  transferred  from  anothei* 
school  should  or  even  does  possess.  If  an  attempt  is  made 
to  discover  this  by  means  of  fathoming  his  knowledge  of 
number,  it  will  be  found  that  the  order  in  which  the  ele- 
mentary principles  of  arithmetic  have  been  taught  varies 
so  greatly  in  different  schools  as  to  make  such  an  enquiry 
difficult  for  the  teacher  and  unfair  to  the  child.     At  ten 


THE  FLEXIBLE  CUEEICULUM  89 

or  eleven  years  of  age  he  may  or  may  not  have  learned 
liow  to  deal  with  easy  vulgar  and  decimal  fractions ;  he 
may  or  may  not  know  what  ' '  percentage  "  or  "  average 
or  "proportion  ' '  or  "ratio ' '  signifies.  If  also  we  consider 
what  very  large  numbers  of  children  move  from  one  school 
to  another,  it  will  be  clear  that  the  amount  of  time  and 
energy  wasted  in  adjustment  to  different  curricula  must 
be  immense.  It  is  unfair  to  the  child  and  the  teacher  that 
this  adjustment  should  be  made  so  difficult.  Moreover, 
the  great  diversity  in  the  syllabuses  of  different  schools 
entails  an  educational  disadvantage  in  that  large  numbers 
of  children  are  bound  to  miss  some  of  the  fundamentals 
on  which  more  advanced  knowledge  and  power  are  built 
up ;  many  an  Elementary  scholar  on  leaving  school  has 
never  learned  anything  concerning  long  periods  of  history 
or  important  countries  of  the  world.  It  is  not  easy  to 
measure  the  amount  of  harm  done  by  this  lack  of  system, 
miscalled  freedom. 

Everything  points  to  the  necessity  of  dealing  with  tlic 
(jUGstion  of  curricula  on  national  and  organised  lines — not 
by  stereotyping  it  in  details,  not  by  destroying  its  flexi- 
bility, but  by  bringing  to  bear  upon  it  the  expert  know- 
ledge gained  by  scientific  study  and  experience  of  the  best 
minds  of  the  profession. 

Although  the  teacher's  right  to  plan  his  own  work  is 
now  widely  recognised,  suggestions  are  made  from  time  to 
time  that  school  curricula  should  be  "  standardised."-^ 
Such  proposals  have  met  with  considerable  opposition,  and 
have  been  regarded  as  a  reversion  to  the  old  and  bad  times 
when  the  State  imposed  the  scheme  of  work  in  detail,  re- 
lentlessly crushing  out  initiative  and  possibility  of  pro- 
gress.    There  is,  however,  still  a  fairly  numerous  body  of 

^  It  has  only  recently  been  proposed  by  certain  head-teachers  of  the 
London  Elementary  Schools  that  the  Council  should  lay  down  a  definite 
standard  syllabus  in  arithmetic. 


90  THE  CUBBlCULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

teachers  who  hunger  for  the  flesh-pots,  who  wish  for  the 
return  of  the  times  when  they  had  a  definite  and  unam- 
biguous syllabus  to  work  from. 

The  suggestion  to  standardise  the  curriculum  is  calcu- 
lated to  arouse  the  opposition  of  all  possessed  by  a  love  of 
freedom  and  a  sense  of  its  indispensability  in  human 
endeavour.  No  man  enchained  by  arbitrarily  imposed 
rules  can  express  himself  worthily  in  an  art.  Better  con- 
fusion with  freedom  than  system  with  enslavement. 
Standardisation  often  covers  a  system  of  slavery — a  system 
in  which  individual  initiative  has  no  place,  in  which 
enthusiasm  is  bound  to  perish,  and  in  which  the  humanis- 
ing activities  of  the  teacher  become  little  more  than  the 
revolutions  of  the  wheels  of  a  machine.  If  standardisa- 
tion means,  as  it  usually  does,  the  framing  of  a  common 
curriculum  in  which  there  is  no  place  for  variety,  for  per- 
sonal powers,  gifts,  and  enthusiasms,  then  the  little  know- 
ledge we  possess  of  the  springs  of  human  endeavour  for- 
bids us  to  have  anything  to  do  with  it. 

Owing  to  its  historical  associations,  "  standardisation" 
contains  nearly  always  a  suggestion  of  very  cheap  articles 
manufactured  almost  without  the  agency  of  human  hands 
and  to  one  specified  pattern.  No  doubt  the  idea  occurs 
to  most  teachers  that  these  articles  and  soulless  machines 
are  symbolic  of  what  the  externally  imposed  codes  of  the 
last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  tried  hard  to  pro- 
duce out  of  pupils  and  teachers.  To  that  condition  of 
things  the  schools  can  never  again  revert. 

The  demand  for  a  "homogeneous"  curriculum  may 
mean  the  same  thing.  Neither  term — neither  "  standard- 
isation "  nor  "  homogeneous,"  as  usually  used — is  capable 
of  meaning  anything  which  can  be  regarded  as  education- 
ally sound. 

Herbert  Spencer's  dictum  that  "  Education  must  pre- 
pare for  complete  living,"  however  wrongly  he  interpreted 


THE  FLEXIBLE  CUEEICULUM  91 

its  application,  still  indicates  most  nearly  the  direction  our 
efforts  as  teactiers  should  follow.  Most  recent  writers  on 
education  have  adopted  his  view.  Now,  the  life  which 
every  child  is  living  and  will  live  is  life  in  a  society.  He 
therefore  needs  preparation  for  life  as  an  individual  and 
for  life  as  a  member  of  a  community.  To  play  his  part  as 
a  social  unit  he  must  in  himself  mirror  the  society  in  which 
he  lives ;  he  must  be  acquainted  with  its  history  and  tradi- 
tions, its  institutions  and  literatm'e,  its  activities,  inven- 
tions, and  knowledge.  This  is,  of  course,  only  another 
way  of  saying  that  he  must  adapt  himself  to  his  environ- 
ment, and  we  thus  reach  the  threshold  of  our  present 
diiSiculty  with  regard  to  the  teacher's  freedom  in  assert- 
ing that  no  fundamental  part  of  this  environment  can  be 
safely  omitted. 

Such  an  assertion,  if  correct,  logically  involves  a  curri- 
culum which  embraces  the  whole  universe  of  knowledge 
and  power — a  demand  which,  without  immense  modifica- 
tions, must  appear  ridiculous.  For  reasons  to  be  found 
in  ourselves  and  our  pupils,  we  cannot  teach  everything, 
and  common  sense  suggests  that  in  selecting  fundamentals 
consideration  must  be  given  to  two  measurable  factors — 
their  relative  intrinsic  values  and  the  varying  power  of  the 
pupil  at  different  ages  to  grasp  them.  The  needs  and 
powers  of  the  child  become  a  mandate  that  he  should  be 
instructed  in  fundamentals,  and  that  these  fundamentals 
should  be  presented  to  him  in  the  order  in  which  his 
powers  develop  and  render  it  possible  for  him  to  assimilate 
them.  In  place,  therefore,  of  the  present  unsystematised 
curriculum,  in  place  also  of  the  proposed  standardised  or 
homogeneous  curriculum,  v^e  propose  to  substitute  a 
general  minimum  curriculum  which  includes  at  least  the 
fundamental  elements  of  human  knowledge  and  powers. 

In  reality  this  is  a  plea  for  a  liberal  education.  The 
acquirement  of  detailed  knowledge  in  a  special  branch  of 


92  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

study  cannot  compensate  for  the  non-acquirement  of 
general  fundamentals.  Moreover,  knowledge  of  a  special 
subject,  if  it  is  to  be  living  and  practical,  cannot  be 
possessed  in  total  or  even  partial  isolation.  A  real  know- 
ledge of  geography  or  of  any  other  single  subject  involves 
a  good  fundamental  knowledge  of  history,  of  mathematics 
and  literature.  It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  not  merely  of 
expediency,  but  of  necessity,  that  those  facts  which  are 
fundamental  in  themselves  and  fundamental  in  their  rela- 
tion to  any  special  subject  should  not  be  neglected. 

The  question  as  to  who  is  to  decide  what  elements  are 
fundamental  is  not  so  difficult  as  at  first  sight  appears. 
Teachers  themselves  should  do  this  ;  not  each  head-teacher 
for  his  own  school,  as  is  now  the  case,  but  the  whole  body 
of  teachers  for  the  gTeat  mass  of  schools.  The  best  men 
and  women  from  the  ranks  of  the  teaching  profession 
should  be  elected  by  the  teachers,  with  power  to  co-opt 
inspectors,  educationists,  psychologists,  and  employers  of 
labour.  Such  a  body  of  experts,  by  placing  its  appro- 
priate members  in  committees  to  deal  with  the  various 
branches  of  human  culture,  might  soon  bring  to  a  head 
the  valuable  work  of  this  kind  which  has  already  been 
done.  Full  general  meetings  of  the  whole  body  of  dele- 
gates would  settle  the  final  difficulties  with  regard  to 
debatable  relative  intrinsic  values. 

It  has  been  contended  that  even  uov/,  in  the  present 
anarchic  condition  of  the  curriculum,  the  head-teacher 
does  not  form  his  own  curriculum  in  entii"e  independence. 
He  has  a  staff  to  aid  him  and  an  inspector  to  advise  and 
oven  control  him.  But  at  the  best  we  have  here  between 
nine  and  ten  heads  put  together  over  a  subject  which  has 
taxed,  and  is  taxing,  the  best  brains  of  every  country. 

Assume  the  possibility  of  a  young  and  inexperienced  or 
a  lazy  or  too  busy  inspector,  and  the  head-teacher's  little 
conference  loses  one  important  member.     A.ssume  also  a 


THE  FLEXIBLE  CUEEICULUM  93 

staff  which  has  only  a  few  hours  to  give  to  these  questions, 
and  the  head-teacher  is  left  alone  to  grapple  with  the 
problem.  Assume  further  that  the  head-teacher  may  be 
too  old,  too  ignorant,  or  too  lazy,  and  what  can  be 
said  of  the  curriculum  brought  to  birth  under  such 
conditions  ? 

Some  would  perhaps  contend  that  none  of  these  possi- 
bilities hold  good  in  their  own  case.  They  are  capable, 
their  staff  is  capable,  and  also  willing,  to  give  all  the 
needed  time,  and  the  inspector  is  eminently  capable  or 
immensely  tractable.  It  must,  however,  be  conceded 
that  these  ideal  conditions  do  not  obtain  everywhere. 
Where  such  advantages  exist  it  seems  only  reasonable  to 
ask  that  those  enjoying  them  should  by  the  means  sug- 
gested give  their  advice  and  help  to  others  less  fortunately 
situated. 

There  appear  to  be  two  classes  of  opponents  to  the  sug- 
gestion of  a  general  minimum  curriculum  of  fundamentals 
— those  who  believe  that  the  task  of  fixing  the  funda- 
mentals of  modern  culture  is  beyond  human  power,  and 
those  who  believe  that  the  fixing  of  fundamentals  would 
limit  the  teacher's  freedom,  thereby  destroying  his  pro- 
fessional enthusiasm  and  changing  him  from  a  humanising 
influence  into  a  machine.  To  the  first  it  seems  necessary 
to  say  :  "Let  us  try;  your  criticisms  shall  be  welcome." 
To  the  second  the  ensuing  paragraphs  are  addressed,  in 
the  hope  of  allaying  their  fears  and  their  opposition  at  the 
same  time. 

Supporters  of  freedom  are  not  only  sincere,  but  they  are 
frequently  the  people  who  are  the  idealists  of  the  profes- 
sion :  men  and  women  of  enthusiasm  who,  if  they  were 
convinced  that  any  proposal  would  hamper  them  in  the 
effort  to  pursue  their  high  ideals,  would  suffer  intensely ; 
men  and  women  whose  discouragement  and  diminution 


94  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

of  enthusiasm  and  efficiency  would  be  the  greatest  loss 
and  calamity  which  the  profession  conld  suffer. 

The  great  problem  that  those  have  to  face  who  believe 
in  the  necessity  of  obtaining  a  curriculum  which  covers  at 
least  the  fundamentals  for  life  in  its  widest  sense  is  to 
prove  to  these  idealists  that  their  aspirations  are  untouched 
by  these  proposals,  and  that  their  freedom  is  retained  un- 
diminished, and  that  the  suggestions  are  not  made  by 
formalists  who  desire  to  make  education  into  a  machine 
that  turns  out  standard  patterns  both  of  teacher  and 
pupils. 

True  freedom  always  carries  on  its  activities  within  the 
limits  of  law.  The  laws  of  a  democratic  community  are 
made  by  its  members,  and  constitute  a  body  of  rules  essen- 
tial for  the  well-being  of  the  members.  They  are,  in  a 
free  country,  as  few  as  are  consonant  with  the  well-being 
of  the  State  as  a  whole.  They  are  the  fundamentals. 
Within  these  fundamentals  each  may  express  himself  as 
much  as  is  possible  to  him  and  as  freely  as  the  community 
by  its  laws  has  decided  is  good  for  the  whole  body  politic. 
It  must  first  be  recognized,  then,  that  freedom  has  its 
limits,  within  which  the  best  possible  work  may  be  done. 

Now,  the  thesis  is  at  least  arguable  that  an  agreed-upon 
minimum  curriculum — a  curriculum  in  which  at  least  the 
fundamentals  are  always  present — will  not  hamper  the 
freedom  of  any  man,  however  idealistic  he  may  be,  how- 
ever specialised  a  form  his  enthusiasm  may  take.  If,  for 
example,  such  a  teacher  has  founded  his  ideals  and  his 
culture  on  what  is  called  geography,  it  is  certain  that  he 
will  teach  the  fundamentals  of  that  knowledge,  and  the 
request  that  he  shall  not  thereby  cause  the  child  to  forgo 
the  advantage  of  possessing  the  fundamentals  of  history 
or  mathematical  knowledge  will  diminish  neither  his  real 
freedom  nor  his  sense  of  freedom. 

Those  who  oppose  the  proposal  on  the  grounds  of  free- 


THE  FLEXIBLE  CUERICULUM  95 

dom  will  not  deny  the  presence  of  some  danger  in  uncon- 
trolled enthusiasm.  Frequent  experience  shows  that  there 
is  considerable  risk  in  the  case  of  a  specialist  of  over- 
emphasising his  subject  to  the  detriment  of  other  funda- 
mentals just  as  vital  to  the  child  in  his  struggle  to  adapt 
himself  to  his  environment,  the  effect  of  which  may  be 
to  leave  him  handicapped  in  a  world  which  needs  both 
special  and  general  knowledge. 

The  real  difficulty  of  the  problem  of  freedom  has  now  to 
be  faced,  the  difficulty,  namely,  of  showing  that  the  pro- 
posals here  made  leave  the  teacher  free  to  pursue  his 
ideals ;  and  in  attempting  this  proof  it  is  necessary  to  ask 
the  careful  and  sympathetic  consideration  of  the  reader  to 
a  theory  which  is  vital  to  this  and  many  other  educational 
problems.  It  is  this  :  The  soul  of  a  teacher  finds  expres- 
sion in  his  method  of  teaching.  It  is  in  his  metliod  of 
teaching,  as  contrasted  with  the  matter  of  instruction, 
that  the  teacher  realises  that  perfect  freedom  essential  to 
self-expression  in  his  art. 

It  is  confusion  of  thought  which  leads  the  individual 
teacher  to  identify  this  freedom  with  the  power  to  choose 
what  he  shall  teach.  His  royal  prerogative,  untram- 
melled and  unfettered  except  by  laws  of  Nature,  is  to 
choose  how  he  shall  assist  the  child  to  transmute  fact  into 
faculty  ;  and  in  deputing  to  the  collective  best  minds  of 
his  profession  the  task  of  deciding  upon  the  fundamental 
essentials  of  the  curriculum,  he  is  pursuing  a  common- 
sense  course  without  surrendering  an  iota  of  the  freedom 
which  belongs  to  him  by  virtue  of  his  office. 

Let  us  now  examine  this  theory  more  closely.  The 
data  of  arithmetic  or  geography  consist,  considered  merely 
as  items  of  the  curriculum,  of  a  series  of  facts  intrinsically 
useful  in  varying  degrees,  but  depending  for  their  power 
of  inspiration,  for  their  training  value,  upon  the  art  of 
presentation.     The  results  of  realising  this  truth  are  far- 


96  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

reaching.  Being  a  man  of  intelligence,  the  teacher  recog- 
nises that  certain  facts  are  fundamental  and  of  intrinsic 
value  to  the  child.  Of  the  value  of  some  other  facts  he  is 
not  quite  so  sure,  but  he  is  morally  certain  that  every  child 
should  be  acquainted  with  certain  matters.  It  is  true  that 
he  may  appreciate  their  value  without  being,  however, 
strongly  interested  in  them.  But — and  here  is  the  vital 
point — knowing  their  value,  he  determines  that  he  will 
vitalise  those  facts  and  teach  them  in  as  inspiring  a  fashion 
as  is  possible  to  him.  What  does  this  mean?  It  means 
that  the  teacher,  although  not  deeply  interested  in  the 
facts,  is  supremely  interested  in  the  method  of  teaching 
them.  This  is  where  the  teaching  profession  reaches  its 
highest  level  and  overcomes  its  most  retardative  frictions. 
Here  we  see  the  inspiring  method  in  its  purest  form,  and 
here  we  see  the  teacher,  in  spite  of  adverse  circumstances, 
still  expressing  himself  and  his  professional  enthusiasm. 

Now  examine  for  a  moment  the  case  of  the  teacher  who 
is  personally  interested  in,  or  even  enthusiastic  about, 
certain  subjects.  It  is  within  the  experience  of  every 
person  who  through  love  of  a  study  has  come  near  to 
mastery  of  it  that  he  is  constantly  noticing  new  relations 
and  new  applications  of  its  facts  to  the  facts  of  life  in 
general.  And  so  it  is  with  the  teacher  who  loves  his  sub- 
ject-matter and  is  master  of  it.  Assume  that  it  happens 
to  be  geography,  his  literature  lessons  will  bear  the  im- 
press of  his  knowledge  of  geography,  and  his  history- 
teaching  will  acquire  geographical  connections  of  immense 
value  to  his  pupils.  His  conversation,  his  illustrations, 
his  out-of-school  activities  with  his  class,  with  find  constant 
expression  in  geographical  terms.  It  cannot  be  contended 
by  the  most  ardent  teacher  of  geography  that  his  freedom 
is  limited  by  a  proposal  that  in  every  school  the  funda- 
mentals of  geography  shall  be  taught.  On  the  contrary, 
he  will  find  in  his  chosen  subject  two  sources  of  inspiration 


THE  FLEXIBLE  CUEEICULUM  97 

— his  own  personal  interest  in  the  material  and  profes- 
sional interest  in  the  art  of  presenting  it. 

Principles  are  not  always  easy  of  application,  and  this 
principle  is  no  exception.  We  must  therefore  enquire 
how  it  touches  the  question  of  fundamentals  in  the  literary 
parts  of  the  curriculum.  The  subject-matter  here  has 
already  received  its  power  to  inspire  by  the  art  or  method 
of  the  historian  or  poet.  A  mere  fact  may  be  asserted 
thus:  "On  the  10th  of  May,  1774,  Louis  XV.  died." 
The  living  writer  inspires  the  fact  by  his  treatment,  by  his 
method  of  presenting  the  fact  :  "  Yes,  poor  Louis,  Death 
has  found  thee.  No  palace  walls  or  gilt  buckram  of 
stiff  est  ceremonial  could  keep  him  out ;  but  he  is  here, 
here  at  thy  very  life-breath,  and  will  extinguish  it.  Thou, 
whose  whole  existence  hitherto  was  a  chimera  and  scenic 
show,  at  length  becomest  a  reality;  sumptuous  Versailles 
bursts  asunder,  like  a  dream,  into  void  immensity.  Time 
is  done,  and  all  the  scaffolding  of  Time  falls  wrecked  with 
hideous  clangour  round  thy  soul ;  the  pale  kingdoms  yawn 
open  ;  there  must  thou  enter,  naked,  all  unking'd,  and 
await  what  is  appointed  thee." 

A  truth  may  be  put  before  us  in  dead  form,  thus  :  "  God 
does  all  things  well."     But  the  writer  of  inspiration  says  : 

"  The  year's  at  the  spring, 
The  day's  at  the  morn. 
Morning's  at  seven ; 
The  hillside's  dew-pearled ; 
The  lark's  on  the  wing ; 
The  snail's  on  the  thorn ; 
God's  in  his  heaven — 
All's  right  with  the  world," 

and  the  fact  passes  into  our  lives  with  a  thrill,  for  the 
absence  of  which  there  is  no  compensation. 

Thus  literary  material  stands  on  a  different  footing  from 
any  other.  In  no  real  sense  can  we  regard  it  as  inert  or 
dead,  as  we  can  and  do  regard  many  items  of  the  syllabus 

7 


08  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

which  belong  to  arithmetic,  geography,  or  science.  Be- 
fore the  teacher  has  put  a  finger,  and  sometimes  a  sacri- 
legious finger,  upon  it,  it  stands  before  our  pupils  in  a 
twofold  aspect — as  a  series  of  plain  facts  of  intrinsic  value, 
and  also  as  facts  permeated  with  inspiration  by  the  form 
into  which  they  have  been  thrown.  How  will  this  affect 
the  question  of  fundamentals  in  history  and  literature? 
Can  it  be  said  with  any  meaning  that  there  are  specific 
parts  of  our  literature  of  fundamental  nature  without 
which  we  ought  not  to  allow  our  pupils  to  leave  school? 

It  has  been  asserted  that  any  single  work  of  art  touches 
life  at  all  its  vital  points,  but  this  is  probably  only  true  for 
the  initiated.  There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  the 
national  literature,  in  its  collective  capacity,  is  able  to  do 
this  in  a  way  which  is  evident  to  every  seeker.  Lyrical 
poetry  by  itself  cannot  be  said  to  do  this,  nor  epic,  nor 
dramatic,  nor  narrative;  but  together  they  do  sound  the 
depths  of  Nature  in  all  its  forms.  And  since  our  admitted 
aim  in  the  school  is  to  bring  the  pupils  into  vital  relations 
with  all  fundamental  sides  of  life,  it  follows  logically  that 
we  have  to  put  before  them,  in  an  order  harmonious  with 
their  developing  ideas  and  understanding,  all  types  of  the 
highest  poetry  and  prose  which  the  language  possesses. 
Beyond  this,  in  the  demand  for  fundamentals,  there  seems 
no  reason  to  go.  Moreover,  by  following  these  lines  we 
provide  a  literary  menu  which  will  appeal  to  all  the  varied 
types  of  appreciation  which  exist  among  the  children  in 
our  schools. 

With  regard  to  history-teaching,  the  difficulty  which  we 
have  seen  arises  in  pure  literature  on  account  of  the  artistic 
form  into  which  it  has  already  been  thrown  exists  to  a 
much  less  degree,  and  the  problem  is  therefore  simplified. 
As  a  rule,  history -teaching  depends  for  its  inspiration  to 
a  considerable  extent  upon  the  teacher's  method,  upon  the 
manner  in  which  he  sees  and  feels  and  expresses  emotion- 


THE  FLEXIBLE  CUEEICULUM  99 

ally  his  feelings.  Nevertheless,  it  is  true  that  the  facts  of 
history,  like  those  of  literature,  have  already  been  put  into 
a  more  or  less  appealing  form,  and  are  already  capable 
without  treatment  by  the  teacher  of  producing  an  emo- 
tional stirring  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  which  gives  rise 
to  historical  convictions  and  ideals. 

There  is,  of  course,  no  reason,  except  for  the  purposes 
of  the  present  argument,  why  the  inspirational  side  of 
history  should  be  treated  in  isolation  from  its  informative 
side.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  when  dis- 
cussing curricula  we  are  dealing  with  information,  and 
when  discussing  method  we  are  dealing  with  the  problem 
of  how  to  make  that  information  inspiring".  Hence  the 
protagonists  of  complete  freedom  could  throw  consider- 
able light  on  our  discussion  by  stating  the  guiding 
principle  on  which  they  select  the  syllabus  of  history.  Do 
they  select  certain  biographies,  do  they  choose  that  certain 
facts  shall  be  learned,  because  these  appear  to  be  most 
useful  for  the  inculcation  of  certain  ideals?  They  would 
most  probably  reply  :  ' '  No ;  but  in  teaching  those  facts 
which  we  have  decided  are  sufficiently  important  to  bo 
learned,  we  hope  and  we  shall  strive  to  do  those  things 
you  spoke  of."  Now,  expanding  this  statement,  it  means 
that  those  biographies  and  facts  are  selected  which  they 
regard  as  knowledge  fundamental  in  general  life,  or  at 
any  rate  as  necessary  for  showing  the  connection  or  rela- 
tion between  fundamental  items  of  historical  knowledge  ; 
but  it  also  means  that  they  will  seek  by  their  method  of 
presenting  these  fundamental  facts  to  inculcate  patriotism, 
honour,  loyalty,  and  other  ideals.  And  this  is  all  we  are 
contending  for.  If  the  idealists  will  only  admit  that  they 
choose  the  history  syllabus,  not  because  of  the  moral  value 
of  the  facts,  but  because  these  facts  seem  to  them  to  be 
best  calculated  to  give  an  understanding  of  history,  to 
produce  an  intelligent  citizen,  one  better  able  through  his 


100  THE  CUEEICULA  OP  SCHOOLS 

study  of  those  facts  to  make  his  political  decisions ;  if 
they  will  further  admit  that  citizen  ideals  will  depend 
almost  entirely  upon  how  they  teach  those  facts,  then  they 
will  see,  we  believe,  no  insuperable  difficulty  in  agreeing 
that  in  selecting  fundamentals  their  real  aim  is  being  in 
no  way  frustrated,  nor  their  true  freedom  limited. 

The  proposal  to  requh'e  the  schools  to  teach  the  funda- 
mentals of  human  culture  is  thus  in  no  way  calculated  to 
establish  a  tyranny  over  the  teacher,  to  stereotype  the 
work  of  the  school,  or  to  standardise  the  teacher  into  a 
machinist.  All  the  arguments  urged  on  behalf  of  standard- 
isation— arguments  dealing  chiefly  with  the  enormous 
practical  benefits  which  it  is  believed  would  follow  the 
standardisation  of  the  curriculum — apply  with  the  same 
force  in  the  case  of  "  f undamentalising  "  it.  At  the  same 
time,  by  merely  making  certain  that  the  curriculum 
includes  the  minimum  of  fundamentals,  no  teacher  is 
hindered  in  giving  scope  to  his  predilections  and  special 
powers,  as  was  too  often  the  case  when  standardisation 
exercised  its  tyranny  over  details.^ 

^  In  a  paper  on  standardisation  of  the  curriculum  by  Mr.  Dumville, 
he  points  out  certain  great  advantages  which  would  follow  the  course 
suggested.  All  teachers,  he  says,  would  be  familiar  with  the  complete 
course  of  instruction  ;  inspectors  and  others  would  not,  as  now,  in 
assessing  the  work  of  the  school,  have  to  spend  time  in  studyinsf  the 
school  curricula ;  the  official  curriculum  would  be  invested  with  the 
authority  which  at  present  it  lacks  ;  and  a  vast  amount  of  thought  now 
directed  to  the  framing  of  syllabuses  could  be  devoted  to  method.  I 
gather  from  my  reading  of  Mr.  Dumville's  paper  that  the  chief  ad- 
vantage he  sees  in  standardisation  is  to  be  found  in  the  possibility  of 
giving  copious  help  to  teachers  in  elaborating  methods  of  teaching  ;  as 
in  France,  periodicals  and  books  would  be  written  by  specialists  in 
large  numbers  showing  how  the  definite  subject-matter  should  be 
taught ;  in  fact,  I  am  not  sure  that  Mr.  Dumville  does  not  exaggerate 
the  educational  value  of  this  consecjuence.  In  any  case,  "  standardisa- 
tion "  is  not  the  same  thing  as  a  minimum  of  fundamentals  ;  if  it  is, 
then  it  would  be  well  to  say  so  very  plainly. 


CHAPTEK  VII 

CURRICULA   OF   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

In  the  course  of  a  perfectly  general  education  until  twelve, 
various  signs  have  indicated  what  broad  fields  in  life  the 
pupil,  following  his  natural  bent,  will  traverse.  Only  the 
very  widest  generalisations  with  regard  to  these  fields  will 
as  yet  be  possible,  and  in  many  instances  none.  By  the 
age  of  fourteen  more  specific  tendencies  show  themselves, 
and  it  begins  to  be  clear  whether  the  boy  has  linguistic  or 
literary,  mathematical  or  scientific  interests  and  powers. 
The  realities  of  life  begin  now  to  appear  as  purposes  which 
act  as  driving  forces,  but  which  in  most  cases  do  not  yet 
point  in  specialised  directions.  Even  where  such  indica- 
tions are  not  wanting,  the  pupil's  choice  has  frequently  to 
be  guided  and  controlled,  for  it  is  easy  for  an  immature 
mind  to  take  short  views.  He  will  often  readily  seize 
upon  narrow  and  immediately  useful  interests,  and  be- 
come a  rather  unsafe  guide  in  choosing  his  special  line. 
He  will  devote  much  energy  to  shorthand  and  book-keep- 
ing, which  a  consensus  of  opinion  rightly  regards  as  sub- 
jects of  too'  specialised  a  nature  for  the  pupil  under  sixteen, 
and  as  of  less  intrinsic  value  than  other  branches  of  human 
culture.  Sixteen  seems  to  be  the  age  at  which  the  boy's 
hitherto  uncertain  interests  take  permanent  forms. 

On  the  whole,  it  seems  that  Nature  has  marked  out 
general  directions  for  the  educationist  to  follow.  Up  to 
the  age  of  twelve,  and  under  ordinary  conditions,  the  pupil 
will  be  occupied  in  adjusting  himself  to  the  more  funda- 
mental elements  of  his  immediate  and  remote  environment ; 
from  that  age  to  fourteen  he  will  become  more  or  lessi  clearly 

101 


102  THE  CURRICUIiA  OF  SCHOOLS 

aware  of  the  general  directions  in  which  his  powers  He ; 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  he  will  probably  be  seeking — 
and  will  find  by  the  end  of  the  period — the  special  power 
or  powers  with  which  Nature  may  have  endowed  him. 
The  girl  arrives  at  these  stages  about  a  year  earlier. 

We  may  make  from  these  facts  two  valuable  conclu- 
sions with  regard  to  curricula  for  pupils  between  the  ages 
of  ten  and  sixteen.  We  may  conclude,  in  the  first  place, 
that  the  education  given  should  be  of  a  general  type, 
many-sided,  and  dealing  with  fundamentals.  If  the 
child's  nature  and  needs  are  used  as  guides,  no  attempt 
will  be  made  before  this  age  to  specialise,  to  go  deeply 
into  one  branch  of  study  by  neglecting  others — in  other 
words,  to  deprive  the  pupil  of  his  chance  of  finding  "  him- 
self." In  the  second  place,  it  is  evident  that  the  curricu- 
lum will  have  to  exhibit  a  development  from  broad  features 
to  details,  from  outlines  to  light  and  shade,  from  width  to 
depth.  The  beginnings  of  the  different  studies  will  be 
found  in  the  common  observable  facts  of  life,  which  will 
have  to  be  treated  on  informal  lines ;  later  will  appear  the 
more  hidden  relations,  with  the  possibility  of  systematic 
and  formal  treatment. 

Such  conclusions  can  only  refer  to  the  ordinary  normal 
child.  There  are,  it  is  certain,  many  children  to  whom 
they  cannot  be  made  to  apply.  Some,  who  have  matured 
more  rapidly  than  the  average,  definitely  indicate  their 
special  powers  long  before  the  age  of  sixteen  ;  others  of 
very  slow  growth  require  a  year  or  two  more  in  which  to 
develop  their  hidden  talent.  Hence  there  should  be  no 
attempt  to  devise  a  cast-iron  curriculum  for  different  ages, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  every  effort  to  allow  of  due  elasticity 
and  variety.  None  the  less,  for  the  good  of  the  great 
majority  of  Secondary  School  pupils  it  is  vitally  necessary 
to  make  use  of  these  principles,  since  without  them  our 
pupils  would   leave   school   without   mental   equilibrium, 


CUERICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    103 

viewing  the  world  through  a  deceptive  twilight  of  unas- 
similated  and  unrelated  knowledge. 

The  educational  aim  of  providing  the  opportunity  for 
self-development,  for  the  growth  of  special  powers,  and  of 
a  background  of  general  culture  capable  of  directing  and 
controlling  those  special  powers,  can  only  be  achieved  if 
the    principle    of    a    general    education    until    sixteen    is 
observed.     Few  educationists  to-day  believe  in  the  pos- 
sibility of  producing  a  wide  and  catholic  mind  by  means 
of    specialised    school    instruction.      Unfortunately,    the 
school  reflects  one  phase  of  the  life  of  the  community — its 
hurry  and  push  and  struggle — with  a  thoroughness  it  fails 
to  put  into  other  far  more  important  phases ;  hence  early 
specialisation  is  by  no  means  unknown.     While  few  en- 
lightened teachers  would  advocate  for  pupils  under  sixteen 
a  merely  mathematical  or  scientific  or  linguistic  training, 
in  practice  this  tendency  is  often  seen.     The  State  itself 
some  years  ago  encouraged  this  tendency,  and  by  its  large 
grants  to  the  Organised  Science  Schools  handicapped  to  a 
disastrous  degree  the  literary  and  linguistic  curriculum. 
Its  repentance  is,  however,  thorough ;  every  publication 
now  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education  on  the  subject  of 
Secondary  School  curricula  urges  the  necessity  of  width 
and  catholicity. 

A  comparatively  small  but  influential  group  of  educa- 
tionists still  maintains  the  superior  value  of  a  merely 
classical  training.  The  most  conservative  would  begin 
this  type  of  instruction  at  an  early  age,  give  it  an  over- 
whelming position  in  the  curriculum,  and  continue  it  as 
long  as  school  education  lasts,  in  the  belief  that  it  will 
produce  the  most  adaptable  and  able  type  of  mind.  The 
more  liberal  supporters  of  a  classical  education  no  longer 
contend  that  this  view  is  correct,  and,  while  asserting  its 
value  as  an   essential  part   of  the  curriculum,  have  the 

vision  to  see  that  it  can  be  only  a  part ,  and  may  not  usurp 


104  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

the  place  of  other  instruction  necessary  to  complete  living, 
whether  social,  business,  or  professional.  There  are 
teachers  who  lay  the  same  unwarrantable  emphasis  upon 
science  teaching. 

The  theory  put  forward  here,  and  which  appears  to  be 
accepted  by  the  State,  is  that,  with  certain  modifications 
to  suit  special  cases,  the  Secondary  School  curriculum 
should  up  to  the  age  of  twelve  be  quite  general  in  char- 
acter ;  that  from  this  age  to  sixteen  it  should  continue  to  be 
general,  at  the  same  time  making  provision  for  certain 
observed  tendencies  towards  mathematical,  scientific,  and 
linguistic  studies ;  and  that  from  sixteen  years  of  age 
specialisation  as  usually  understood  should  begin.  Thus 
we  find  that  in  a  recent  memorandum  issued  by  the  Board 
of  Education  encouragement  is  given  to  an  organisation 
which  makes  the  age  eleven  to  twelve  the  time  for  begin- 
ning the  first  foreign  language.  English  language  and 
literature,  geography,  history,  mathematics,  science,  and 
drawing ;  organised  games,  physical  exercises,  manual 
instruction,  and  singing,  together  with  domestic  subjects 
for  girls — in  fact,  all  the  fundamental  aspects  of  life,  the 
general  elements  of  human  thought  and  activity — are  to 
receive  continuous  attention  until  the  age  of  sixteen.^ 
When  this  point  is  reached,  a  two  years'  course  of  ad- 
vanced instruction  in  either  (1)  science  and  mathematics, 
(2)  classics,  or  (3)  languages  and  history,^  with  instruction 
in  subjects  of  a  general  nature,  is  permissible  where  ade- 
quate equipment  exists. 

The  necessity  for  a  general  education  until  sixteen  thus 
meets  with  wide  agreement.  The  nature  of  the  pupil 
seems  clearly  to  point  to  it ;  the  close  interconnection  of 
all  branches  of  knowledge  demands  it.  The  intensive 
thought  upon  education  during  the  last  few  decades  by 

^  "  Regulations  for  Secondary  Schools,"  chapter  ii, 
2  Ibid.,  chapter  viii, 


CUEEICULA  OF  SECONDAKY  SCHOOLS    105 

psychologists,  educationists,  social  workers,  eminent 
wTiters  of  fiction,  and  last,  but  by  no  means  least,  by 
teachers  and  Board  of  Education  experts,  has  given  such 
confirmation  to  the  principle  that  it  may  be  regarded  as 
unassailable. 

A  principle  of  so  general  a  nature  will  naturally  allow  of 
valuing  application,  according  to  varying  conditions.  We 
have  seen  that  in  the  case  of  the  Elementary  Schools  local 
and  special  conditions  affected  methods  of  teaching  and  to 
some  degree  the  curriculum  itself  ;  and  the  same  will  occur, 
and  to  a  greater  degree,  in  the  case  of  Secondary  Schools. 
Local  advantages  and  needs  will  afford  the  Secondary 
School  teacher  means  not  only  of  vitalising  the  curriculum 
by  means  of  illustrations  and  examples  drawn  from  the 
environment,  by  the  inclusion  of  special  problems  and 
special  applications  of  scientific  principles,  but  also  of 
widening  the  common  minimum  curriculum  in  the  direc- 
tion of  local  conditions  and  their  corresponding  interests 
for  the  greater  number  of  pupils.  We  need  only  instance 
the  Secondary  Schools  of  mining  districts  or  of  towns 
where  dyeing  is  carried  on  or  those  of  agricultural  areas. 

Considerable  variety  in  the  curriculum  is  legitimate. 
The  future  occupation,  the  age  at  which  pupils  enter  and 
at  which  they  leave  the  school,  the  previous  training  and 
the  home  life,  the  fact  of  residence  or  non-residence  in  the 
school,  and  the  individual  tastes  of  the  scholars,  will  all 
have  their  effect  in  the  shaping  of  the  scheme  of  work. 

It  will  frequently  be  necessary  to  give  variety  to  the 
curriculum  by  emphasising  some  portions  of  it,  or  by  giving 
more  intensive  study  to  one  part,  while  necessarily  allow- 
ing others  to  proceed  more  slowly.  The  average  pupil 
often  finds  a  new  subject  or  branch  very  baffling  and 
obscure  at  first,  and  is  consequently  discouraged  ;  hence  it 
is  advisable  to  curtail  the  period  of  "gaping,"  and  to  get 
as  quickly   as  the  pupil's  powers   will  permit   into  tha 


106  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

smoother  waters  of  familiarity  and  habit.  Moreover, 
experience  shows  us  that  an  outburst  of  energy  in  one 
direction  entails  a  diminution  of  it  in  nearly  every  other. 

It  is  obvious  that  schools  which  retain  their  pupils  until 
sixteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age  will  show  far  deeper 
differences  in  their  curricula  than  those  schools  which  the 
pupil  leaves  at  fourteen.  It  is  for  this  reason,  as  well  as 
others,  that  the  head-master  of  a  Secondary  School  should 
be  entrusted  with  greater  freedom  in  shaping  his  curricu- 
lum than  his  fellow-worker  in  the  Elementary  School. 
No  one  can  know  better  than  he  the  local  needs  and  the 
special  function  his  school  is  capable  of  performing ;  no 
one  is  better  situated  for  observing  the  developing  special 
tastes  and  powers  of  his  pupils.  Subject,  therefore,  to  a 
certain  degree  of  supervision  with  regard  to  the  common 
fundamentals,  he  should  have  authority  to  frame  his 
scheme  of  work  within  the  limits  already  defined. 

The  freedom  delegated  to  the  head-master  should  always 
be  circumscribed  by  enlightened  supervision.  The  abso 
lute  freedom  of  the  "private  school"  is  educationally 
wrong.  It  has  been  said  that  some  of  the  best  and  most 
self-sacrificing  efforts  for  educational  reform  have  origin- 
ated in  such  schools,  "  whose  record  in  this  respect  com- 
pares favourably  with  that  of  any  other  class  of  school."^ 
This  is  true,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  many  such  schools 
have  produced  a  kind  of  educational  chaos  and  a  lack  of 
foundation  and  balance  altogether  detrimental  to  the 
general  educational  progress  of  the  country.  Under  what 
is  now  an  enlightened  central  authority  and  an  enlightened, 
progressive  inspectorate,  there  is  room  for  every  type  of 
educational  experiment.  It  must  always  be  remembered 
that  for  every  experiment  which  succeeds  in  proving  its 
worth  as  a  new  pedagogic  departure,  probably  ninety-nine 

1  "  Educational  Roform,"  p.  197,  Be^port  of  the  Ecluoatiopal  Reform 
Council  (Teachers'  Guild). 


CUERICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    107 

fail  to  do  so.  There  is,  therefore,  nothing  reactionary  in 
the  plea  that  they  should  be  undertaken  only  after  the 
most  serious  consideration  by  the  originator,  and  with  such 
supervisory  precautions  as  may  prevent  a  large  number  of 
jDupils  suffering  shipwreck  in  the  process. 

The  curriculum  of  the  efficient  Secondary  School  is 
often  affected  adversely  by  a  multiplicity  of  external  exam- 
inations, the  syllabuses  of  which  have  been  fixed  without 
regard  to  the  special  character  and  function  of  the  particu- 
lar school.  The  whole  curriculum  has  been  framed  to 
meet  the  demands  of  one  or  more  examinations,  and  the 
principle  of  fundamentals  has  gone  by  the  board.  The 
theory  of  the  head-master's  freedom  has  perished  too,  and 
the  general  loss  in  educational  efficiency  is  not  counter- 
balanced by  a  long  list  of  examination  successes.  Variety 
in  the  curriculum  caused  by  outside  examinations  is  gener- 
ally to  be  condemned.  The  curriculum  should  be  planned 
with  both  eyes  shut  to  everything  which  lies  outside  the 
lines  of  natural  development,  examinations  only  being 
used  to  see  that  the  teaching  has  been  effective  or  to  test 
whether  a  pupil  is  fit  to  pass  on  to  the  next  stage  in  his 
natural  progress. 

The  curriculum  may  also  suffer  considerably  owing  to 
the  absence  of  a  proper  co-ordination  of  the  various  sub- 
jects. We  aim  at  a  very  remote  and  inaccessil^le  ideal  in 
trying  to  produce  in  our  pupils  unity  of  thought ;  none  the 
less  it  is  necessary  to  work  in  that  direction.  Growing 
unity  of  purpose  may  lead  to  some  degree  of  thought  unity, 
and  the  curriculum  should  be  framed  to  further  both  ends. 
Mathematics,  for  example,  should  appear,  not  as  an 
isolated  domain  of  knowledge,  but  as  an  integral  part  of 
geographical,  scientific,  and  manual  work.  Latin  should 
put  in  a  useful  appearance  in  many  English  and  French 
lessons  and  in  history.  Wherever  natural  connections 
exist,   they   should   be   utilised   for  the  purpose,   among 


108  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

others,  of  unifying  the  "  all  too  naturally  departmentalised 
minds  of  our  pupils."  We  have  already  seen  that  correla- 
tion of  this  kind  is  brought  about  most  fully  by  means  of 
intelligent  methods  of  teaching,  and  less  fully  by  the 
properly  arranged  curriculum.  It  is,  however,  very  im- 
portant in  the  Secondary  School  to  lay  great  stress  upon  a 
well-co-ordinated  curriculum,  since  the  work  of  a  form  is 
not,  as  in  the  Elementary  School,  in  the  hands  of  one 
teacher.  The  pupil  may  have  four  or  five  or  even  more 
masters  for  different  subjects,  and  unless  obvious  precau- 
tions are  taken,  each  of  these  subjects  will  preserve  an 
entirely  independent  existence,  thus  losing  much  of  their 
power  to  produce  the  unity  which  gives  force  and  direction 
to  life. 

One  of  the  first  great  problems  which  face  the  education- 
ist in  his  endeavour  to  gain  clear  ideas  and  ideals  with 
regard  to  Secondary  School  curricula  is  the  question  of  the 
continuity  of  Elementary  and  Secondary  Education.  Is 
it  advisable,  and  if  so  is  it  possible,  to  secure  this  con- 
tinuity? The  answer  to  the  first  query  is  to  be  found  in 
our  social  and  national  ideals.  In  a  real  democracy  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  take  up  any  attitude  but  that  of  con- 
sent. A  career  open  to  all  the  talents,  and  without  un- 
necessary impediments,  is  the  only  logical  formula.  The 
idealists  have  already — and  the  practical  men  and  women 
are  now  following  in  the  same  direction — contended  that 
all  the  children  of  the  nation  should  receive  the  same  eda- 
cation  up  to  a  certain  age,  some  arguing  that  this  age 
should  be  twelve  and  others  fourteen.  The  gain,  they 
say,  would  be  enormous.  Some  educationists,  in  their 
anxiety  to  preserve  the  Elementary  School  curriculum 
from  undue  influence  by  Secondary  School  aims,  insist  on 
keeping  the  two  distinct  throughout.  Others,  moved  by 
the  same  anxiety  on  behalf  of  Secondary  School  curricula, 


CUKBICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    109 

support  the  same  view.  There  is  Uttle  doubt,  however, 
that  this  reform  will  become  before  long  an  accomplished 
fact. 

The  psychological  grounds  for  it  are  strong ;  for  the 
nature  and  capacity  of  normal  children  up  to  about  the 
age  of  twelve  do  not  vary  to  so  great  a  degree  as  to  requu'e 
quite  different  mental  food.  It  is  only  when  the  permanent 
powers  are  beginning  to  appear,  when  the  leaving  age  is 
approaching  and  the  future  career  is  becoming  clear  to 
both  teacher  and  pupil,  that  any  considerable  difference  in 
ciurricula  is  needed. 

As  to  the  ways  and  means  of  effecting  this  continuity, 
opinions  vary,  but  not  to  an  extent  that  should  paralyse 
action.  The  simplest  and  soundest  plan  would  appear  to 
be  to  postpone  the  learning  of  all  languages  other  than  the 
mother-tongue  until  after  twelve  years  of  age  ;  to  give  a 
good  grounding  in  Nature-study,  out  of  which  the  sciences 
and  geography  would  develop  naturally  ;  and  to  extend  the 
often  narrow  arithmetic  scheme  of  the  Elementary  School 
by  including  practical  mensuration  and  geometry — a  much- 
needed  modification,  good  for  the  Elementary  School  pupil 
and  a  preparation  for  the  mathematical  studies  of  Second- 
ary Education. 

To  all  who  place  their  confidence  in  a  purely  classical, 
and  even  to  those  who  put  their  faith  in  a  scientific  educa- 
tion, the  proposal  will  be  unwelcome,  but  the  number  of 
such  is  now  fortunately  small.  More  opposition  would  be 
met  with  from  those  who  believe  in  the  necessity  for  be- 
ginning languages  early,  and  cannot,  therefore,  face  with 
equanimity  the  delay  involved.  Some  teachers  who 
supix)rt  the  principle  of  this  reform  hesitate  over  this 
language  difficulty  ;  Messrs.  Norwood  and  Hope  would  have 
French  begun  by  Elementary  School  pupils  of  capacity  at 
ten  years  of  age,  so  that  they  should  not  be  placed  at  a 
disadvantage   when    entering   the    Secondary    School    at 


110  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

twelve/  There  is,  however,  no  need  for  this  exception  ;  an 
ordinary  child  has  no  really  firm  grasp  of  his  native  language 
and  its  construction  before  the  age  of  twelve,  and  until  he 
has  will  meet  with  discouragements  in  the  acquirement  of 
a  foreign  tongue  which  we  have  every  reason  to  avoid. 
Actual  results  show,  too,  that  pupils  beginning  the  foreign 
language  at  twelve  are  in  no  way  handicapped,  and  in  a 
very  short  time  have  caught  up  with  those  who  began  it 
at  ten. 

The  writers  just  mentioned  have  suggested  a  further  im- 
portant step  in  the  process  of  co-ordinating  English  edu- 
cation. They  propose  such  a  manipulation  of  the  curricu- 
lum as  will  bring  the  Secondary  Schools  of  the  second  grade 
into  line  with  those  of  the  first  grade,  so  as  to  enable  pupils 
to  pass  easily  from  one  to  the  other  at  any  stage  below  the 
age  of  sixteen.  A  proof  of  the  convenience  of  such  an 
arrangement  might  be  insufficient;  it  rests,  however,  on  a 
firmer  basis — namely,  the  nature  and  necessities  of  the 
pupil.  For  the  ordinary  boy  and  girl  two  years  should  be 
given  to  one  foreign  language  before  beginning  another. 
Here,  therefore,  the  convenient  coincides  with  the  natural. 

The  only  flaw  in  the  scheme  seems  to  be  that  Higher 
Grade  Secondary  Schools  require  that  Latin  should  be 
begun  before  the  age  of  fourteen.  INIessrs.  Norwood  and 
Hope  therefore  suggest  that  the  Second  Grade  Secondary 
Schools  should  choose  Latin  rather  than  German  as  the 
second  language  to  be  studied  until  fourteen.  As  they 
point  out,  this  would  make  a  homogeneous  scheme  feasible, 
but  they  fail  to  show  that  their  preference  for  Latin  is 
educationally  sound.  Most  of  the  old  phrases  about  the 
training  value  of  Latin  are  used,  and  Canon  Glazebrook's 
platitudes  on  the  disciplinary  values  of  certain  studies  are 
quoted.     The  writers  seem  even  unaware  that  the  dogma 

^  Norwood  and  Hope,  "Higher  Education  of  Boys  in  Eng- 
Ijind." 


CURRICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    111 

of  "formal  training"  has  ever  been  contested.  Fortun- 
ately, the  fact  that  everything  does  not  fit  in  the  scheme 
constitutes  no  argument  against  its  general  soundness. 
The  age  of  fourteen  is  quite  early  enough  for  deciding 
whether  the  bias  is  to  be  on  the  classical  or  the  modern 
side,  and  it  may  very  v^ell  be  that  the  Higher  Grade 
Schools  are  badly  advised  in  beginning  Latin  at  twelve. 
We  give  on  pages  112  and  113  the  complete  pro- 
posals.^ 

The  war  and  the  consequent  national  awakening  as  to 
the  value  of  education  have  given  an  impetus  to  sugges- 
tions for  reform  in  secondary  organisation  and  curricula 
from  many  directions.  Among  these  the  work  of  the  Edu- 
cation Reform  Council,  initiated  by  the  Teachers'  Guild, 
has  been  of  very  high  value.  In  dealing  with  Secondary 
Schools  of  the  second  grade,  the  Council  made  proposals 
with  which  the  present  writer  is  in  very  close  agreement. 
They  divide  the  school  course  into  three  stages — viz., 
Stage  I.  (ages  about  ten  to  twelve).  Stage  II.  (from  twelve 
to  fourteen),  and  Stage  III.  (from  fourteen  to  sixteen), 
and  outline  a  normal  minimum  curriculum,  open  to  various 
detailed  modifications,  to  meet  varying  conditions.  See 
table,  p.  114. 

Several  valuable  qualities  characterise  this  arrange- 
ment. First  of  all  the  curriculum  of  Stage  I.  has  no 
foreign  language,  the  time  usually  occupied  by  such  a 
study  being  devoted  to  a  more  thorough  understanding  of 
and  power  over  the  mother-tongue.  Secondly,  two  years 
elapse  between  beginning  the  first  and  beginning  the 
second  foreign  language  ;  this  obviates  the  necessity  for 
that  pernicious  hurry  and  overwork  which  mar  Secondary 
Education  so  frequently,  and  permits  the  deliberate  and 
even  leisurely  absorption  of  knowledge  and  acquirement  of 

*  Norwood  and  Hope,  "Higher  Education  of  Boys  in  England," 
p.  297. 


112 


THE  CURKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


HIGHER  GRADE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL,  PREPARING 
FOR  THE  UNIVERSITIES. 


Below 
Course. 

Lower 
Course. 

Classical 
Specialists. 

Specialists. 

Average  Age 
of  Boys. 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

16 

17 

18 

Divinity 
English 
Latin 
Greek 
French 
German 
History- 
Geography  . . 
Mathematics 
Science 
Nature  Study 
Writing 
Drawing 
Manual  Train- 
ing 

Al 
6 

6 

3 

2 
6 

3 
1 

2 

2 

1 
6 

6 

3 

2 
6 

3 

1 
2 

2 

1 
3 
6 

5 

2 

2 
6 

|C3 

2 
2 

1 
3 
6 

5 

2 
2 
6 

2 
2 

1 
2 
6 

B6 
3 

B6 
2 
2 
5 
3 

2 

1 
2 
6 
6 
3 
6 
2 
2 
5 
3 



2 

1 

}l5i 
3 

E3 

5 

2 

1 

}20j 

|d3 
3 

3 

1 
}22j 

3 

2 

1 

3 

3 

B4 

B4/ 
1  E3 

1 

1 
2 
3 
4 
3\ 

1 
2 

3 
4 

Total  periods 
per  week  . . 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

Each  period  has  an  average  duration  of  forty-five  minutes. 

A.  Another  period  will  be  given  to  Divinity  on  Sundays  in  boarding-schools. 

B.  Greek  and  German  are  alternative  subjects. 

C.  A  bracket  between  two  subjects  means  that  the  periods  can  be  distri- 

buted according  to  need. 

D.  German,  instead  of  French,  may  be  taught  in  the  two  top  classical  forms, 

E.  In  the  last  three  years,  classical  boys  will  give  two-thirds  of  their  time  to 

classical  and  one-third  to  modern  history;  modem  boys  the  reverse. 

F.  History  and  modem  language  specialists  will  have  time  assigned  from 

the  periods  given  to  mathematics  and  science. 
Civics  will  be  taught  in  a  period  taken  from  an  English  subject,  hygiene  in  a 
period  taken  from  science  or  mathematics. 


CUEEICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS/ 


MUNICIPAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOL,  PREPAEING  FOR 
COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY. 


Below 
Course. 

Lower  Course. 

Higher 
Course. 

Average  Age 
of  Boys. 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

Divinity 
English 
French 
German 
Latin 
History 
Geography  . . 
Mathematics 
Science 
Nature  Study 
Writing 
Drawing 
Manual  Train- 
ing 

1 
6 
6 

3 

2 
6 

)A3 
i  1 
2 

2 

1 
6 
6 

3 

2 
6 

\~^    ^ 
/  1     1 

2 

2 

1 
3 
5 
B6 
B6 
2 
2 
6 

}3 

2 
2 

1 
3 
5 
6 
6 
2 
2 
6 

2 

2 

1 
3 
5 
5 
5 
2 
2 
6 
4 

2 

2 

1 
3 
5 
5 

5 
2 
2 
6 
4 

2 

2 

1 

C4 
5 
5 
5 

5 

5 

1 

1 
4 
5 
5 
5 

5 
5 

1 

1 

4 
5 
5 
5 

5 
5 

1 

(+2)D 

(+5)E 
(+2)D 

Total  periods 
per  week.. 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32    !    32 

32 

Each  period  has  a  duration  of  forty-five  minutes. 

A.  A  bracket  between  two  subjects  means  that  the  periods  can  be  distri- 

buted according  to  need. 

B.  Latin  and  German  are  alternative  subjects. 

C.  One  of  the  English  periods  during  the  last  three  years  might  well  be 

devoted  to  the  study  of  classical  history  and  of  classical  literature  in 
translations. 

D.  Two  extra  periods  to  bo  assigned  to  English  or  to  drawing,  at  the  option 

of  the  boy,  in  the  higher  course. 

E.  Five  extra  periods  may  be  assigned  to  science,  as  an  alternative  to 

keeping  up  a  second  language  in  the  higher  course. 
Civics  will  be  taught  in  a  period  taken  from  an  English  subject,  hygiene  in 
a  period  taken  from  science  or  mathematics. 

Note. — I  have  ventured  to  criticise  the  above  scheme,  but  I  have  also  tried 
to  express  my  conviction  that  it  follows,  on  the  whole,  sound 
pedagogic  principles,  and  is  not  open  to  the  criticism  that  it  is  at 
present  impracticable — a  criticism  which  may  with  some  show 
of  reason  be  levelled  against  other  more  radical  reforms. 


114 


THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


SUGGESTED  CURRICULUM  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
LESSON  PERIODS. 


Stage  I. 

Stage  II. 

Stage  III. 

Subject. 

{About  Ten  to 

Twelve). 

{About  Twelve 
to  Fourteen). 

{About  Four- 
teen to  Sixteen). 

Scripture     . . 

English 

History 

Geography 

French 

1 

6 

3 

3  or  2 

1 
4  or  5 
2  or  3 

2 

5 

1 

4  or  5 
2  or  3 

2 

4 

Second   Foreign   Language 
or  some  alternative 

5 

Mathematics 

5  or  6 

5  or  6 

5  or  6 

Natural  Science 

3  or  2 

4 

4 

Drawing  (including  Colour 

Work)      ..          ..        _.. 

Vocal   Music    and   Musical 

2 

2 

2 

Appreciation 
Handwork  . . 

2 
2  or  3 

2 
2 

2 
2 

Physical  Training  . . 

3 

2 

2 

Total  Number  of  Periods  . . 

30 

31-34 

35-38 

power  so  essential  to  real  development.  Lastly,  the  pos- 
sibility of  teaching  only  one  foreign  language  is  envisaged, 
and  a  place  in  Secondary  Education  is  conceded  to  those 
possessed  of  little  linguistic  ability. 

Every  highly  civilised  nation  of  modern  times  has  tried 
to  introduce  variety  into  the  matter  taught  in  its  Secondary 
Schools.  The  centuries  old  practice  of  putting  all  pupils 
through  the  same  machine ,  regardless  of  special  tastes  and 
pov^ers,  is  no  longer  pursued.  Considerable  freedom  of 
choice  now  lies  before  every  Secondary  School  pupil,  who 
can  at  some  time  or  other  choose  between  classical ,  modern 
language,  scientific,  mathematical,  and,  later  in  his  school 
life,  historical  courses.     One  characteristic  of  English  and 


CURRICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    115 

French  as  contrasted  with  German  Secondary  Schools  is 
that  all  these  varied  courses  are  carried  on  in  the  same  insti- 
tution. The  encouragement  given  by  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation to  collaboration  between  schools,  with  the  view  of 
making  full  use  of  special  staff  qualifications  and  equip- 
ment, and  the  recent  introduction  of  advanced  courses  for 
the  older  scholars,  sometimes  entailing  the  transference  of 
pupils  to  schools  specially  organised  for  the  purpose,  mark 
a  small  step  in  the  German  direction. 

On  the  whole,  the  facts  put  forward  in  the  last  chapter 
have  had  considerable  weight  in  the  framing  of  Secondary 
School  curricula.  Some  schools  have  provided  a  general 
education  up  to  eleven  or  twelve,  introduced  a  superficial 
division  at  fourteen,  and  begun  specialisation  in  earnest  at 
sixteen.  A  few  have  even  continued  what  may  be  regarded 
as  a  true  general  education  up  to  fourteen.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  Public  Schools  specialise  from  the  beginning. 
We  may  disapprove  of  this  system  and  lament  its  effects, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  such  schools  often  do  not 
draw  their  pupils  from  the  locality,  but  from  the  country 
as  a  whole ;  they  supply  no  local  needs,  and  parents  need 
not  send  their  children  to  them  unless  they  choose. 

When  the  school  drawing  its  pupils  from  the  neighbour- 
hood is  very  large  and  well  equipped,  it  develops,  as  has 
been  observed,  two  or  more  sides,  with  different  kinds 
of  curricula.  We  may  take  the  Manchester  Grammar 
School  as  an  example.  This  school,  which  fulfils  a  special 
function  in  the  midst  of  a  large  industrial  and  commercial 
population,  has  a  Preparatory,  Lower,  and  Upper  School, 
with  pupils  varying  in  age  from  nine  to  nineteen.  It  also 
admits  a  large  number  of  scholarship  boys  from  the  Ele- 
mentary Schools  at  the  age  of  eleven  or  twelve.  In  the 
four  preparatory  forms,  containing  boys  of  from  nine  to 
eleven  years  of  age,  the  curriculum  is  the  same  for  all,  and 


116  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

contains,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  subjects,  French  and 
Nature-study.  A  good  grounding  in  Enghsh  is  also  aimed 
at.  As  soon  as  the  pupil  reaches  the  Upper  School — that 
is,  at  the  age  of  eleven — he  must  decide  which  branch  of 
study  to  follow — classics  or  modern  languages.  These  are 
separate  from  this  moment  all  through  the  school ,  no  Latin 
being  taught  on  the  modern  side  until  the  top  form  is 
reached.  Thus  it  is  practically  impossible  for  a  scholar 
beginning  on  the  modern  side  to  transfer  to  the  classical, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  to  begin  on  the 
classical  and  transfer  to  the  modern.  The  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek  appears  to  be  considered  of  the  very  highest 
value,  for  every  encouragement  is  given  to  enter  the 
classical  side.  In  advising  parents  as  to  their  choice,  the 
head-master  urges  not  only  the  utility  of  Latin  for  business 
and  commerce,  but  the  old  argument,  rather  threadbare  in 
recent  years,  that  it  is  the  most  logical  of  all  languages 
and  teaches  clear  and  accurate  thought.  Greek  is  said  to 
be  the  most  beautiful  and  dehcate  of  all  languages,  and  the 
source  and  standard  of  most  of  the  intellectual  and  artistic 
achievements  of  modern  Europe.  Fortunately,  we  are  not 
compelled  to  discuss  here  these  statements,  and  need  only 
note  the  fact  that,  although  Latin  is  regarded  as  of  such 
intrinsic  importance,  it  does  not  appear  as  a  subject  of 
study  on  the  modern  side. 

The  complete  scheme  of  studies  is  admirably  set  out  in 
the  diagram  given  on  p.  117.^ 

The  idea  upon  which  such  an  organisation  is  based  ap- 
pears to  be  that  at  the  age  of  eleven  a  boy  has  indicated 
which  general  direction  his  path  in  life  will  take,  either 
towards  commerce  or  the  learned  professions.  If  later  on 
it  is  found  that  he  has  mistaken  his  bent  in  following  a 

1  Arrangfed  by  Mr.  Hope,  Head-master  of  the  Roan  School  and 
formerly  Classical  Master  at  the  Manchester  Grammar  School,  through 
whose  courtesy  this  information  and  much  other  has  come  into  my 
hands. 


CtJEBICULA  OF  SECONDABY  SCHOOLS   117 


University  Courses 

in 
Modern  Languages, 
Commerce  etc. 


Modern  Sixth 
(Age  17-13) 


4 


Latin  OP 
Spanisln. 
German, 
French. 


Mod.Trans.JA 
(Age  16)  (B 

Mod.Fifth.JA 
(Age  15)  (b 

Mod.Fourtm^ 
(Age  14)  (( 

Mod  Upper 
Remove. 
(Age  14) 

Mod.Third.jg 

Se13)   (c 

Mod.  Lower 
Remove. 
(Age  13) 


MODERN      'matri^ui  atiam      CLASSICAL 
I     Qinr         iMATRICULATlON.  SIDE  ' 


University  or 

School  of  Technology, 
courses  in 
Medicine, 
Engineering, 
Science, 

A  Architecture  etc. 


jScience 
}  Sixth 
KAgplT-ID) 


Math'. 
Sixth. 
Age  17- 19) 


Math' 
Trans. 
(Age  17) 


Univer'sity  Courses 

in 

Classic&,History.Langu3gcs  etc 

leading  to 

Learned  Professions, 

Civil  ServiceO^^ Division) 


^ 


SIDE. 


Upper  Claosical 

Sixth. 
Lov^'er(  Age  17-19) 

Classical  Trans. 
(Age  17) 


Classical  Fifth 
(Aje  16) 

n:]Cias5ical  Remove^ 
/3j     (Age  15) 

(Classical  fourth 
(Age  14) 

■) Classical  Third. 
(Age  13) 

[Classical  Second. 
(Age  12) 


(Age  9-11) 


N.B. — The  Fourths  and  all  forms  above  the  Fourths  constitute  the 
Upper  School ;  the  forms  below  the  Fourths  are  the  Lower  School. 


118  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

classical  line,  he  can  easily  change  to  the  modern  side  by 
drojDping  Greek  for  good  and  Latin  for  a  time.  In  the 
case  of  a  pupil  on  the  modern  side  wishing  to  transfer  to 
the  classical,  some  intensive  work  in  Latin  and  Greek 
might  perhaps  be  attempted,  but  would  be  extremely  diffi- 
cult. Specialisation  in  science  does  not  occur  until  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  the  science  side  then  draws  pupils  from 
both  classical  and  modern  sides.  Real  specialisation  in 
mathematics  begins  at  seventeen.  Science  and  mathe- 
matics both  lead  towards  more  specialised  University  and 
technological  coiurses  in  medicine,  engineering,  and 
science. 

Another  principle  of  first-rate  importance  finds  applica- 
tion in  this  curriculum — namely,  that  tlie  basis  of  all 
school  studies  should  be  linguistic.  Both  modern  and 
classical  sides  are  fundamentally  linguistic  in  character, 
science  being  added  later,  and  in  larger  doses  to  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  former  than  to  that  of  the  latter.  This 
principle  has  met  with  very  general  acceptance  by  the 
great  body  of  educational  opinion,  and  is  the  view  held  by 
the  Central  Educational  Authority. 

On  the  classical  side  at  Manchester  Latin  is  begun  at 
twelve  and  Greek  at  fourteen,  and  on  the  modern  side 
German  is  taken  up  at  fourteen.  This  arrangement  fol- 
lows the  common-sense  rule  that  two  foreign  languages 
should  not  be  begun  at  the  same  time.  "Concurrent 
study  of  two  foreign  languages  (French  and  Latin),  and 
sometimes  three  (Greek  or  German  in  addition),  before 
elements  of  one  have  been  mastered,  and  often  before 
pupils  can  read  and  write  intelligently,  is  one  of  the  most 
disastrous  features  of  our  secondary  education."^ 

The  practice  of  allowing  time  in  which  to  become 
familiarised  with  one  language  before  beginning  another  is 
now  observed  in  many  schools,  and  affects  all  pupils  except 

1  "  Educational  Reform,"  p.  79. 


CUERICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    119 

the  winners  of  scholarships  who  enter  at  about  the  age  of 
twelve.  At  the  Manchester  Grammar  School  these  pre- 
smnably  bright  children,  when  too  advanced  in  general 
subjects  to  be  put  into  a  preparatory  form,  are  on  the 
modern  side  drafted  into  two  Remove  forms.  Remove  A 
is  for  the  best  of  these  new  entrants,  who  begin  intensive 
work  in  French  and  German.  In  Remove  B  the  others 
are  taught  French  only.  At  the  end  of  a  year  the  former 
pass  into  the  Fifth  and  the  latter  into  the  Third  or  Fourth 
Forms.  Many  Secondary  Schools  have  a  somewhat 
similar  organisation,  and  allow  boys  who  enter  at  the  age 
of  eleven  or  twelve,  both  scholarship-holders  and  others, 
to  begin  French  and  Latin  at  the  same  time.  This  ar- 
rangement may  be  the  best  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances, but  the  plan  is  opposed  to  all  we  know  of  a  child's 
nature  and  powers  of  absorbing  new  knowledge.  It  would 
be  scarcely  a  matter  for  surprise  if  some  of  these  children, 
showing  precocity  at  the  age  of  eleven  or  twelve,  but  lack- 
ing the  foundation  of  English  grammar,  should  lose  their 
way  among  conflicting  vocabularies  and  rules  and  end  in 
dulness  or  enfeebled  health. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CURRICULA   OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  {Continued) 

We  have  seen  that  local  conditions,  together  with  the  aims, 
needs,  and  tastes  of  the  pupils,  rightly  exert  a  strong 
influence  upon  the  curricula  of  all  except  the  Public 
Schools  drawing  pupils  from  every  part  of  the  country. 
The  recognition  of  the  pupils'  right  to  consideration  in  the 
framing  of  curricula  naturally  leads  to  a  considerable 
variety  of  studies.  At  University  College,  for  example, 
the  boys  may  be  reclassified  for  almost  every  subject,  and 
thus  to  all  intents  and  purposes  work  to  separate  time- 
tables. Clifton  Cohege,  on  the  other  hand,  compromises  in 
an  interesting  way  between  entirely  separate  ' '  sides ' '  and 
extreme  variety,  and  may  be  used  to  illustrate  this  blurring 
of  the  line  between  classical  and  modern.  The  blur  is  not, 
however,  very  pronounced. 

The  Upper  School ,  for  boys  between  the  ages  of  thirteen 
and  nineteen,  is  divided  into  three  sides — the  classical,  the 
modern,  and  the  military.  The  Junior  School,  for  boys 
between  ten  and  fourteen,  prepares  for  all  three  sides  of 
the  Upper  School.  A  Preparatory  School  for  boys  be- 
tween seven  and  eleven,  and  limited  to  forty-five  boys, 
prepares  for  the  Junior  School.  In  the  Preparatory  School 
a  grounding  is  given  in  the  English  subjects,  French, 
Latin,  and  arithmetic.  In  the  Junior  School  the  same 
subjects  are  taught,  and  in  the  highest  classes  of  this  sec- 
tion Greek  is  included  for  those  preparing  to  enter  the 
classical  side  of  the  Upper  School.  Thus  before  a  boy  is 
thirteen  years  of  age  he  has  begun  to  study  three  languages 

120 


CUEKICULA  OF  SECONDAKY  SCHOOLS    121 

besides  his  own.  The  pupils  intending  to  enter  the 
modern  side  give  extra  time  to  mathematics.  The  Upper 
School  bifurcates  at  once  into  modern  and  classical  sides, 
the  modern  side  including  intending  candidates  for  the 
army,  who  form  a  distinct  side  after  they  have  passed 
through  the  Fourth  Form. 

Every  boy  is  placed  in  a  form,  and  follows  certain 
studies  with  all  his  form  mates.  Other  subjects  are  taught 
in  sets— that  is,  groups  of  boys  chosen  from  different  forms 
according  to  their  capacity  in  the  special  branch.  The 
mathematical  sets  tliroughout  the  school  and  the  science 
sets  in  the  upper  half  are  common  to  the  two  sides  of  the 
school. 

The  following  tabular  summary  shows  the  general 
arrangement  : 

Modern  Side 

Form  III. — For})i  Subjects. — Scripture,  English,  History, 
Geography,  Drawing,  and  Latin. 

Sets. — French,  Mathematics,  and  Natural  Science. 
Form  IV. — Form  Subjects. — Scripture,  English,  History, 
Geography,  Drawing,  and  Latin. 

Sets. — Mathematics,    Science,    French,    Latin    or 
German. 
Form  V. — Form  Subjects. — Scripture,  English,  History, 
Geography. 

Sets. — Mathematics,    Science,    French,    Latin    or 
German.     Specialisation  takes  place  in   Mathe- 
matics, History,  or  Modern  Languages,  and  Ad- 
vanced English  in  some  cases  is  substituted  for 
Science. 
Form    VI. — Scripture.     Continued    development    of    the 
subjects    of   this   side,   but   more   elasticity   in   their 
routine.     Preparation  for  University  and  other  exam- 
inations. 


122  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

Classical  Side 

Form  III. — Form  Subjects. — Scripture,  English,  History, 
Geography,  Drawing,  and  Latin. 

Sets. — Greek,  French,  Mathematics,  and  Science. 
Form  IV. — Form  Subjects. — Scripture,  English,  History, 
Geography,  Drawing,  Latin,  and  Greek. 
Sets. — French,  Mathematics,  and  Science. 
Form  V.,  Lower. — Form  Subjects. — Scripture,  English, 
History,  Geography,  Latin,  and  Greek. 
Sets. — Science  or  French. 

Modern  Language  specialists  drop  Greek  for  Ger- 
man. 
Form  V.,  Upper. — Form  Subjects. — Scripture,  English, 
History,    Geography,    Latin,    and    Greek.     French 
dropped  and  German  begun. 
Remissions  from  Form  work  to  cultivate  special 
tastes  for  Science,  Mathematics,  Modern  Lan- 
guages or  History. 

From  the  lowest  form  of  the  Upper  School,  when  pupils 
are  about  thirteen  years  old,  some  amount  of  choice  is 
offered.  There  they  choose,  or  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  their 
parents  choose,  which  main  side — classical  or  modern — 
they  shall  adopt.  As  at  Manchester,  the  school  author- 
ities recommend,  although  not  so  strongly,  the  classical 
side.  In  the  classical  Lower  Fifth  boys  choose  between 
continuing  science  or  French,  and  in  the  Upper  Fifth 
special  tastes  in  science,  mathematics,  modern  languages, 
and  history,  are  given  opportunities  for  cultivation.  On 
the  modern  side  it  is  very  similar.  During  practically  the 
whole  period  of  Upper  School  life  the  pupil  may  obtain 
permission  to  change  from  classical  to  modern  or  vice 
versa,  or  to  devote  more  time  to  some  special  subject  or 
group  of  subjects. 


CUEHICULA  0'^  SECONDAKY  SCttOOLS    123 

This  freedom  in  choosing  after  minimum  requirements 
are  secured  is  typical  of  many  of  the  best  schools,  and  is 
becoming  more  and  more  general.  The  decision  is  rightly 
made  by  the  head-master  and  staff  in  consultation  with 
the  parents.  x\nd  behind  these  stands  the  boy,  expressing 
his  desires  or  demonstrating  by  his  work  or  unintentionally 
expressed  tastes  and  needs  the  direction  of  his  own  choice. 

The  Highgate  School  carries  the  principle  of  individual 
choice  considerably  farther.  This  school  has  four  divi- 
sions with,  roughly,  120  boys  in  each — the  Junior  School 
(ages  nine  to  twelve) ;  the  Lower  School  (twelve  to  four- 
teen) ;  a  Middle  School  (fourteen  to  sixteen) ;  and  an  Upper 
School  (sixteen  to  nineteen).  The  top  of  the  school  is 
classified  as  University  and  Non-University ;  the  pupils  of 
the  former  prepare  for  the  University  of  London  and  for 
Cambridge  and  Oxford ;  a  minority  of  the  latter  prepare 
for  the  London  Matriculation  as  a  means  of  entering 
various  professions ;  the  others,  unable  for  some  reason  or 
another  to  follow  the  lines  just  described  and  constituting 
about  80  per  cent,  of  the  Non-University  pupils,  are 
encouraged  to  pursue  their  own  bent  with  greater  freedom. 
For  these  the  scheme  of  study  varies  according  to  the  boy's 
special  tastes  and  abilities,  his  intended  career,  and  the 
financial  ability  of  his  parents  to  continue  his  technical  or 
professional  education.  The  "form  system"  with  its 
form  subjects  is  retained ;  at  the  same  time  needful 
elasticity  is  introduced,  and  the  ordinary  boy  is  not  sacri- 
ficed to  the  brilliant  few. 

Apart  from  form  organisation,  there  are  three  group 
systems  in  the  top  part  of  the  school.  Group  System  A 
consists  of  Sixth  Form  boys,  all  taking  specialised  work  of 
an  advanced  kind — classical,  modern  languages,  or  scien- 
tific. The  classical  is  the  only  homogeneous  group,  al- 
though some  of  these  specialise  also  in  French  or  German 
or  science.     The  modern  section  is  a  composite  body,  con- 


124  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

sisting  of  pupils  specialising  in  history,  modern  languages, 
mathematics,  and  science.  Some  others  who  have  passed 
the  University  Entrance  Examination,  and  whose  education 
has  so  far  been  chiefly  literary,  specialise  in  science  at  a 
lower  standard,  for  the  immediate  jDurpose  of  reaching  the 
Science  Sixth.  The  Science  Sixth  consists  of  three  classes 
— future  doctors,  engineers,  and  chemists — who  work  to- 
gether for  about  half  the  time.  The  unity  of  the  whole 
form  is  preserved  by  common  work  in  English  literature 
and  history. 

Group  System  B  covers  a  very  large  number  of  boys 
from  fifteen  and  a  half  to  seventeen  years,  some  of  whom 
will  later  reach  Group  A,  and  others  who  will  never  know 
a  Sixth  Form,  the  latter  including  boys  whose  only  object 
is  to  pass  a  Matriculation  Examination  or  an  ordinary 
entrance  examination  for  Oxford  or  Cambridge.  These 
undertake  only  semi-specialised  work,  and  their  scheme  of 
studies  is  naturally  more  comprehensive.  Group-work  is 
confined  to  fewer  hours,  and  opportunities  are  afforded  of 
coping  seriously  with  weak  subjects.  The  boy  who  goes 
later  to  the  Science  Sixth  works  intensively  at  science  at 
the  expense  of  language — that  is,  instead  of  three  he  takes 
two  languages. 

Group  System  C  contains  backward  boys  of  from  fifteen 
to  seventeen  years  of  age,  about  10  per  cent,  of  whom  are 
unusually  dull  at  their  studies.  For  these,  the  curriculum 
is  narrowed  in  a  way  depending  on  the  boys'  special  needs. 
A  few  take  one  language  in  addition  toEnglish,and  all  retain 
some  science  and  some  mathematics.  The  organisation  of 
the  group  is  completed  by  redistribution  into  sets ;  on  the 
modern  side  they  are  reclassified  both  for  Latin  and  for 
the  second  modern  language,  which  is  German  or  Spanish. 
Redistribution  for  mathematics  and  science  is  at  present 
impossible,  owing  to  the  demands  such  a  system  of  group- 
ing makes  upon  the  staff. 


CUERICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    125 

The   College   at   Bishop's   Stortford    shows  interesting 
variations,  and  may  be  instanced  here,  although  it  has  no 
pupils  beyond  the  age  of  seventeen.     The  Upper  School 
consists  of  the  Sixth  Forms ;  the  Middle  School  of  the 
Fifth  and  Fourth  Forms ;  the  Lower  School  of  the  Third 
Forms ;  the  Preparatory  School  of  the  Second  and  First 
Forms.     The  school  prepares  for  business  and  professional 
careers.     The  form  subjects  consist  of  Scripture,  English, 
history,   geography,    French,    mathematics,    and    natural 
science  ;  manual  instruction ,  with  a  blank  between  the 
ages   of   twelve   and   thirteen,   merges  into  physics   and 
mechanics ;  music  and  drawing  are  taught  until  the  age  of 
fourteen  and  a  half  is  reached.     Latin  is  begun  at  the  age 
of  twelve ;  at  the  age  of  fifteen  and  a  half,  in  the  Lower 
Fifth,  Greek  or  German  is  chosen — a  very  desirable  post- 
ponement for  most  boys.     In  the  Sixth  Form  pupils  must 
choose  between  Greek,  German,  and  science,  but  all  boys 
continue  to  learn  some  science,  which,  as  Nature-study, 
physics,   and   chemistry,  is  taken  throughout  the  whole 
school.     The  Fourth  Forms  are  parallel,  as  are  also  the 
Fifth  ;  and  as  the  same  subjects  are  taught  simultaneously, 
the  boys  can  be  redistributed  into  sets  for  all  subjects.     In 
the   Sixth  Forms  redistribution   takes   place    for   mathe- 
matical work.     There  are  therefore  no  "sides."     Instead 
of  "sides"  the  forms  are  arranged  in  parallel  divisions, 
the  organisation  of  the  time-table  allowing  of  transference 
when  advisable.     Pupils  have  to  determine  in  the  Fourth 
Form  between  classics  and  modern  languages,  but  need 
not    decide    until    the    Lower    Sixth    between    modern 
languages  and  science. 

The  complete  time  analysis  is  given  on  p.  126. 

The  Higher  Grade  Secondary  Schools  are  thus  em- 
phasising more  and  more  the  need  of  a  common  basis  of 
knowledge  and  power,  and  deferring  the  moment  for 
final  specialisation,  with  its  consequent  dropping  of  some 


126 


THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


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CUEEICULA  OF  SECONDAEY  SCHOOLS    127 

branch  study  or  studies.  Wakefield  Grammar  School  and 
others  give  science  and  other  general  subjects  their  appro- 
priate place  even  on  the  classical  side.  At  Harrow,  al- 
though the  school  traditions  are  overwhelmingly  classical, 
the  teaching  of  science  is  most  efficiently  organised.  Out 
of  42  boys  in  the  Sixth  Form,  10  are  specialising  in 
classics,  9  in  history,  and  13  in  science.  At  Mill  Hill 
everyone  takes  not  less  than  two  periods  per  week  in 
science,  the  subject  gradually  demanding  more  time  up 
to  six  hours  weekly  for  those  who  are  specialising  in  it. 
On  the  whole  there  is  marked  progress  towards  balance  in 
the  various  schemes  of  study. 

The  ciuTicula  of  Second  Grade  Schools  differ  from  those 
of  the  First  Grade  by  the  omission  of  Greek.  The  aim  of 
such  schools  is  chiefly  preparation  for  commercial  and  pro- 
fessional careers;  many  pupils,  however,  enter  the  higher 
branches  of  industry  or  leave  the  Secondary  School  to  enter 
institutions  giving  technical  training.  On  the  whole,  few 
of  the  pupils  proceed  to  the  older  Universities.  The  scope 
of  the  aim  of  these  schools  is  therefore  wide,  and  their 
curricula  give  indications  of  the  endeavour  to  cover  all 
possible  needs.  In  the  schemes  of  study  we  find  the  whole 
gamut  of  general  and  special  studies,  from  Latin  to  short- 
hand and  typewriting,  from  Spanish  to  business  methods. 
The  schools  under  State  control  have,  however,  to  con- 
form to  certain  regulations  with  regard  to  curricula,  and 
are  not  allowed  to  introduce  specialised  technical  matter, 
however  insistent  the  demand  of  mistaken  parents  may  be. 

Without  unduly  limiting  the  head-master's  freedom,  the 
Board  of  Education  makes  certain  minimum  demands. 
While  allowing  for  exceptional  cases,  it  makes  the  grant 
of  financial  aid  conditional  upon  efficient  instruction  in 
English  language  and  literature,  at  least  one  other  lan- 
guage, geography,  history,  mathematics,  science   (which 


128  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

includes  practical  work  by  the  pupils) ,  and  drawing ; 
organised  games,  physical  exercises,  manual  instruction, 
and  singing,  nuist  be  included  for  boys,  and  practical 
instruction  in  domestic  subjects — needlework,  cookery, 
laundry,  housekeeping,  and  household  hygiene — for  girls. 
Languages  other  than  English  may  be  omitted  if  the 
instruction  in  English  "  provides  special  and  adequate 
linguistic  training."  On  the  other  hand,  "a  curriculum 
including  two  languages  other  than  English,  but  making 
no  provision  for  instruction  in  Latin,  will  only  be  approved 
where  the  Board  are  satisfied  that  the  omission  of  Latin  is 
for  the  educational  advantage  of  the  School."^  The  re- 
cently introduced  advanced  courses  for  both  older  boys  and 
girls  are  valuable  from  many  points  of  view ,  although  they 
have  met  with  equally  valuable  criticism,  and  will  prob- 
ably undergo  great  modifications.  The  freedom  of  the 
teacher  is  further  guarded  by  the  regulation  that  ' '  indi- 
vidual pupils  or  special  classes  may,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Board,  follow  a  curriculum  varying  from  the  curricu- 
lum approved  for  the  rest  of  the  school." 

The  scheme  of  work  given  on  p.  129  is  typical  of  what 
is  being  done  in  good  Secondary  Schools  under  the  con- 
ditions laid  down  by  the  Board  of  Education. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  this  scheme  shows  a  steady 
adherence  to  the  ideal  of  a  general,  wide  education.  There 
are  no  separate  "sides,"  the  only  distinction  being  that 
while  a  number  of  non-linguistic  pupils  content  themselves 
with  one  language  other  than  English,  the  others  choose 
whether  the  extra  language  sholl  be  Latin  or  German. 
No  pupils  begin  Latin  until  fourteen,  and  in  the  case  of 
scholarship  boys  two  years  elapse  between  beginning 
French  and  a  second  language.  Waste  of  energy  and 
discouragement  are  diminished  by  regroupings  for  lan- 
guages and  mathematics,  and  the  sane  practice  is  pm'sued 

*  "  Regulations  for  Secondary  Schools,"  chapter  ii. 


COURSE  COMMON  TO  ALL. 


Form. 

Average 
Age. 

Subjects. 

Special  Classes. 

I 

8-10 

English,  Geography,  His- 
tory,    Nature    Study, 
Music  (Drawing,  Manual 
Instruction,     Drill     (3 
periods  per  week). 

II 

11 

Above  subjects.    French. 

Ill 

Shell  B  \ 
Shell  a/       •  • 

12 
12-! 

Above  subjects.    French. 
Above  subjects.        Drill 
(2  ijeriods). 

IV.D 

12 

English,    French    (inten- 
sive),   Chemistry    and 
Physics,  History,  Geo- 
graphy, Music,  Draw- 
ing,   Manual    Instruc- 
tion, Drill. 

Scholarship  boys. 
Strong  boys 
drafted  into  a 
Remove  class, 
weak  into  a  IV. 

IV.c"! 

IV.B  [ 

IV.aJ 

13  i 

English,   French,   Chem- 
istry and  Physics,  His- 
tory.    Geography, 
MusicjDrawing,  Manual 
Instruction,  Drill. 

Regrouped  for 
French       and 

Mathematics. 

Remove  c  (slow)       ^ 

,,        B  (medium)  / 

A  (fast)        J 


14 


ALTERNATIVE  LATIN  OR  GERMAN. 

English,  French,  Latin  orlRegrouped  for  Lan- 
German,  History  and  guages  and 
Geography,  Chemistry  Mathematics, 
and  Physics,  Music,  Includes  Non- 
Drawing,  Manual  In-  linguistic  boys 
struction,    Drill.  who  have   3   pe- 

riods French  and 
1  Science  extra. 


V.B) 

V.a/ 


15 


English,  French,  Latin 
or  German,  History 
and  Geography,  Chem 
istry  and  Physics, 
Music,  Drill. 


VI.  Lower  Lower  ^ 

Transitus.        V 

VI.  Lower  '' 


15-16 


English,  French,  Latin  or 
German,  History  and 
Geography,  Chemistry, 
Music,  Drill. 


MatriculationForm. 


VI.  Upper  . . 


16-17{ 


English,   Music,   History 
and  Geography,  Drill 


129 


Post-matriculation. 
Specialising  at 
present  in  Science 
and  Mathematics. 


130 


THE  CUBEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


of  giving  a  course  in  Nature-study  preparatory  to  chemistry 
and  physics. 

Another  type  of  Second  Grade  Secondary  School  is  that 
in  which  for  special  reasons  no  Latin  is  taken.  As  already 
noted,  schools  of  this  variety  which  wish  to  earn  Govern- 
ment grants  must  satisfy  the  Board  of  Education  that  such 
an  omission  is  educationally  sound.  That  it  is  not  unwel- 
come to  the  parents  is  proved  by  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
number  of  these  schools  and  in  the  number  of  pupils 
attending  them.  On  this  and  the  following  page  are  given 
the  curricula  of  two  schools  of  this  type. 


TIME  ANALYSIS. 

SHOWING  THE  TIME  DEVOTED  WEEKLY  IN  THE  DIFFERENT 
FORMS  TO  EACH  OF  THE  SUBJECTS  OF  THE  ORDINARY 
SCHOOL  COURSE. 


Lower 

Middle 

Upper 

Subjects. 

Forms. 

Forms 

Forms. 

I. 

II. 

II.A 

III. 

m.A 

IV. 

IV.A 

V. 

VI. 

VI.A 

Religious  Instruction 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

English 

6 

6} 

7 

6f 

6i 

5 

H 

3 

3i 

5i 

Geography  and  History 

n 

H 

3 

3 

3^ 

3 

3 

2Jt 

2;^ 

3 

French 

3 

3 

ii* 

^T 

2| 

H 

^ 

^ 

-'i 

German 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

n 

2| 

2' 

H 

Mathematics,  including 

6 

^ 

H 

5i 

4^ 

4| 

H 

4 

H 

4 

Practical  Geometry 

Chemistry 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2i 

2 

2| 

n 

^ 

Physics 

— 

— 

— 

^ 

ii 

H 

iii 

3i 

2i 

Nature  Study 

U 

li 

H: 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Drawing 

■^4 

1* 

li 

H 

li 

ii 

1;^ 

H 

— 

— 

Manual  Instruction    . . 

1| 

H 

H 

H 

2 

2 

4 

H 

— 

— 

Physical  Exercises     . . 

1,^ 

li 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Vocal  Music     . . 

H 

1 

1 

1 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Shorthand 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1 

— 

Total  No.  of  hours  per 

week 

25^ 

25i 

25^ 

25i 

25^ 

25^ 

25i 

25i 

25i 

26^ 

CUKEICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    131 


II. 


Form. 

/. 

II.G 

7//.D 

/F.R 

IV.A  F.A 

1 

V.c 

English    . .         . .   1 

8 

9                   6 

6 

1 
6    1    7 

6 

(3  writing)  t 

(2  writing)    (2  writing) 

1 

French     . .          ..   ' 

—        1 

4 

5 

6 

6    i    8 

5 

German    . .          . . 

1 

— 

4 

5    1    3 

5 

History    . .          . . 

3          i 

2 

2 

2 

2    i    3 

2 

Geography          . .   | 

3          i 

2 

2 

2 

2      — 

2 

Mathematics 

12 

11 

8 

6 

6       8 

8 

Chemistry 

— 

— 

— 

3 

2       3 

2 

Physics    . . 

— 

— 

3 

3 

2       3 

2 

Drawing  . .          . .   i 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2       — 

2 

Drill 

2 

2                   1 

— 

1       — 

1 

Singing    ..          ..   j 

2 

1                    1 

— 

—     — 

— 

Woodwork          . .   . 

1 

—                  3 

2 

'  2    ■  — 

— 

Form  V.  a,  b  and  c 

•• 

Until    recently    prepared    for    Cambridge 
Senior  Local  Examination;  now  takes  the 
Senior  London. 

Form  VI.  (Lower) 

Prepares  for  London  Matriculation  Exam- 
ination— English   (6),   French   (6),   Ger- 
man (6),  History  (3),  Mathematics  (8), 
Theoretical  and  Practical  Chemistry  (3), 
Theoretical  and  Practical  Physics  (3). 

Form  VI.  (Upper) 

Until  recently  prepared  for  Intermediate 
Civil  Service  Examinations  and   Inter- 
mediate Science  (London);  now  takes  an 
advanced   course    under   the   Board   of 
Education's  Regulations. 

Notes. — 1.  Forms  not  shown  in  above  table  are  II. a  and  b,  III. a,  b,  and  c, 
IV.B,  c,  and  D. 

2.  Form  III.d  contains  the  County  Scholars  and  a  few  bright 
boys  promoted  from  Form  I. 


Note. — With  regard  to  the  latter  scheme  of  work,  the  student  will  find 
it  a  useful  exercise  to  examine  critically  (a)  the  periods  allotted  to  mathe- 
matics; (b)  the  partial  or  entire  absence  of  handwork,  Nature  study,  drawing, 
drill,  and  singing. 


132  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

With  regard  to  Secondary  Schools  for  girls,  reference 
should  be  made  to  the  different  types  of  cunicula  described 
in  Miss  Burstall's  well-known  book  "English  High 
Schools  for  Girls ' '  ;  the  student  will  there  find  a  great  deal 
of  very  valuable  information  on  the  subject.  It  will  per- 
haps be  sufficient  here  to  describe  briefly  two  interesting 
types — one  a  Day  and  Boarding  School  on  the  lines  of  a 
Boys'  Public  School,  and  the  other  a  Municipal  Secondary 
School . 

St.  Leonard's  School,  St.  Andrews,  has  277  scholars, 
of  whom  only  17  are  day-girls ;  it  is  therefore  prac- 
tically a  boarding-school.  Pupils  are  admitted  at  the 
age  of  thirteen,  and  may  remain  in  the  school  until  nine- 
teen. The  Preparatory  School  consists  of  about  100  girls 
and  small  boys,  who  receive  instruction  in  Scripture,  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  geometry,  algebra,  English 
literature,  history,  geography,  Latin,  French,  drawing. 
Nature-study,  Swedish  drill,  dancing,  singing,  and  hand- 
work. In  the  Senior  School  the  curriculum  covers  a 
course  of  four  years.  The  Sixth  Form  is  not  a  form  for 
teaching  purposes ;  the  pupils  have  completed  the  ordinary 
curriculum,  and  are  either  preparing  for  certain  higher 
examinations  or  receive  instruction  in  the  Lower  Sixth  ; 
they  are  also  closely  concerned  with  the  government  of  the 
school.  The  rest  of  the  school  is  classified  as  Low^er  V., 
v.,  Upper  v.,  and  Lower  VI.,  each  form  consisting  of 
two,  three,  or  even  four  parallel  di\'isions,  determined 
chiefly  by  proficiency  in  English  subjects.  The  form  sub- 
jects are  Scripture,  English,  and  history,  most  of  the  other 
subjects  being  taken  in  ' '  sets. ' '  The  Fourth  Division  in  any 
Form  consists  of  girls  who  are  unable  to  benefit  from  the 
ordinary  school  course,  but  are  educable  if  the  education  is 
not  transmitted  too  exclusively  through  the  medium  of 
books.  For  these  girls  a  scheme  of  study  is  provided 
which   includes  one   foreign    language,   no   mathematics 


CUEEICULA  OF  SECONDAEY  SCHOOLS    133 

except  arithmetic  and  some  geometrical  drawing,  English, 
handwork  (including  wood-carving  and  modelling),  draw- 
ing, music ,  Dalcroze  eurhythmies,  dancing,  and  gardening. 

The  table  on  p.  134  shows  the  subjects  taught  to  the 
greater  number  of  pupils  and  the  average  number  of  hours 
given  weekly  to  each  subject. 

In  addition  to  the  subjects  shown,  Greek  is  taught  to 
17  and  German  to  17  pupils,  both  languages  being  usually 
begun  in  the  first  year.  Latin  is  taken  by  123  and  French 
by  256  pupils. 

The  non-literary  part  of  the  school,  found  in  V.4,  Upper 
V.4,  and  Lower  VI. s,  learn  French,  but  not  Latin;  arith- 
metic, but  not  algebra  or  geometry  ;  a  little  botany,  but  not 
physics  or  chemistry.  Forms  V.4  and  Upper  V.4  fill  in 
the  free  time  with  ear-training,  eurhythmies,  elocution, 
modelling,  geometrical  drawing,  sewing  and  gardening ; 
Lower  VI. 3  with  ear-training  and  elocution,  cookery, 
laundry,  housewifery  and  dressmaking,  shorthand,  type- 
writing and  hygiene. 

We  may  conclude  this  short  account  of  Secondary 
School  curricula  with  a  description  of  a  large  municipal 
school  for  girls  in  which  the  principle  of  free  advanced  edu- 
cation for  those  capable  of  profiting  by  it  receives  generous 
application.  The  total  number  of  scholars  is  540,  of 
whom  175,  or  32  per  cent.,  are  holders  of  scholar- 
ships. 

The  Junior  School  consists  of  Forms  I.,  II.,  and  III.  ; 
the  Middle  of  Form  IV.  and  Lower  V. ;  and  the  Upper  of 
Forms  Upper  V.  and  VI.  Fee-paying  scholars  are  ad- 
mitted at  the  age  of  ten.  Scholarship  children  at  about 
eleven  and  a  half.  The  curriculum  is  so  formed  that  dur- 
ing the  school  course  each  girl  studies  the  ordinary  English 
subjects,  at  least  one  foreign  language,  mathematics,  and 
science  (natural,  physical,  domestic).  Before  entering  rhe 
Third  Forms  girls  are  classified  as  follows  : 


lO 

'lA 

do 

•Jfjo^  aAT^Tjj^siuimpY  puB  suoi^«uiuivxa 

^ 

VIA 

«S| 

CO 

1 

1 

1 

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r- 1 

1 

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1 

1 

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CI 

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1 

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Cl 

1 

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1 

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(M 

1 

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1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1     1 

1 

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^ 

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•VA 

jaddfi 

(N 

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1 

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Cl 

Cl 

CO 

w 

CO 

'Z-A 
jddd{2 

<N 

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(M 

m 

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- 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

1    1 

Cl 

'S'A 

xaddfi 

'VA 
jtaddfi 

<N 

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1 

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- 

Cl 

Cl 

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1    1 

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to 

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134 


CUERICULA  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS    135 

A. — Girls  of  good  mental  and  physical  development,  who 
may  stay  five  years  longer  in  the  school  and  of  whom  the 
best  may  go  on  to  the  University. 

B. — Girls  of  fairly  good  ability,  who  may  leave  at 
the  age  of  sixteen.  The  aim  of  the  majority  would  be  to 
enter  a  Training  College  for  Elementary  Teachers,  or 
the  Civil  Service.  Some  may  enter  the  school  in  this 
division  at  the  age  of  thirteen  as  Supplementary  Junior 
Scholars. 

C. — Girls  of  poor  physique  or  of  poor  previous  training 
or  of  late  mental  development.  Here  domestic  science 
precedes  the  formal  study  of  mathematics. 

The  classification  just  described  is  neither  rigid  nor 
necessarily  permanent ;  girls  pass  from  one  division  to  an- 
other when  it  is  seen  to  be  desirable. 

Division  A  consists  of  Upper  III.,  Upper  IV.,  Lower 
V.A.  Upper  V  (Matriculation),  and  VI. 

The  following  table  shows  the  courses  followed  in  the 
different  forms  : 


rSoripture,  English,  French,  History,  Geography,  Arith- 

Form  I. 

J      metic  and  Practical  Geometry,  Natural  Science,  Draw- 

„    11. 

1     ing,  Singing,  Needlework,  Handwork,  Physical  Exer- 

l     cisos  and  Games. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

„    III. 

The    above ;    Alge- 

The above ;  Algebra 

The   above ;    Gar- 

bra  and   Deduc- 

and   Deductive 

dening. 

tive  Geometry. 

Geometry. 

„    IV. 

The    above ;    Latin 

The  above ;  German 

The  above ;  Domes- 

or German. 

(for  some). 

tic  Science. 

„    V. 

The    above :    Latin 

The  above ;  German 

The  above;    Alge- 

or  German,   Do- 

(for   some).    Do- 

bra,    Deductive 

mestic  Science. 

mestic  Science. 

Geometry,     or 
Domestic  Sci- 
ence. 

„    Upper  V. 
„    VI.         1 

The  above ;  Spanish 
German,       or 

Greek. 

136  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

New  pupils  entering  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  with  no 
knowledge  of  French,  join  the  German  beginners  and  take 
no  French. 

The  table  given  on  p.  137  indicates  the  number  of  hours 
weekly  given  to  the  various  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 

In  this  school  a  tutorial  system  is  employed  for  the  girls 
of  quicker  intelligence.  When  in  any  particular  subjects 
these  pupils  make  advance  beyond  their  class-mates,  in- 
stead of  working  ahead  or  at  another  subject  in  the  same 
class-room  under  the  same  teacher,  they  are  sent  into  the 
hall,  where  they  may  read  any  subject  they  wish,  making 
use  of  the  library  to  the  extent  desired.  The  subject 
studied  need  not  be  definitely  in  the  school  curriculum  ;  it 
may,  for  example,  be  astronomy,  biography,  invention, 
etc.  Two  mistresses  are  in  charge  of  this  work,  acting  as 
tutors,  suggesting  courses,  giving  essays,  and  in  general 
guiding  the  reading.  The  system  is  favourable  to  the 
slower  girl,  whose  teacher  has  more  time  to  devote  to  her, 
and  also  to  the  quicker  girl,  who  is  thus  emancipated  from 
a  deadening  routine  and  makes  a  steady  advance  through- 
out her  course  instead  of  waiting  for  the  end  of  her  school 
career  for  an  advanced  course.  Liberal  financial  arrange- 
ments, allowing  for  the  purchase  of  books  and  for  extra 
teachers,  are  needed  for  such  a  scheme. 


•  >,  -.2    • 

137 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES 

The  time-table  is  a  symbol  of  the  teacher's  self-control 
and  method,  the  raw  assertion  of  the  economic  and  psycho- 
logical necessity  for  regularity  and  variety  in  the  educa- 
tional process.  It  follows  as  the  next  step  in  the  organisa- 
tion of  studies  after  decisions  have  been  reached  as  to  the 
elements  of  the  curriculum  and  their  relative  values,  and 
cannot  be  intelligently  constructed  until  that  formidable 
question  has  been  settled.  The  good  teacher  will  not 
regard  the  time-table  as  a  task-master,  as  railway  officials 
do  their  time-tables.  It  differs  in  at  least  one  important 
respect  from  a  railway  time-table  in  that  it  has  not  to  be 
slavishly  or  meticulously  obeyed.  If  a  lesson  extends 
three  minutes  beyond  the  scheduled  time  nothing  is  lost ; 
if  it  finishes  for  various  reasons  three  minutes  before,  some 
gain  may  even  accrue.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  mentor  and  not  a 
master.  Necessary  to  the  teacher,  it  is  equally  necessary 
to  the  pupil.  It  reduces  the  promiscuous  picking  up  of 
knowledge  to  orderly  acquisition  ;  it  helps  to  form  habits 
of  order  which  may  function  in  the  pupil's  after-school 
studies  and  perhaps  in  the  general  activities  of  his  life. 

The  curricula  and  time-tables  of  French  schools  have  for 
many  years  been  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  administra- 
tive officials,  who  at  one  time  could  boast  that  they  knew 
what  every  scholar  in  France  was  occupied  in  doing  at  any 
oiven  moment.  In  England  the  head-teacher  frames  his 
own  time-table,  subject  only  to  the  approval  of  the  inspec- 
tors of  the  Local  Education  Authority,  if  there  are  any, 

138 


THE  ELEMENTAEY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  139 

and  of  the  Board  of  Education.  When,  as  sometimes 
happens,  he  depends  overmuch  upon  his  own  experience, 
and  makes  no  use  of  the  trials  and  faihires  of  others,  calUng 
to  his  help  none  of  the  proved  facts  of  psychology,  he  may 
construct  a  time-table  the  value  of  which  is  much  dimin- 
ished by  his  blunders.  The  object  of  this  chapter  is,  there- 
fore, to  put  before  the  teacher  some  of  the  most  essential 
facts  which  may  help  him  to  perform  this  part  of  his  func- 
tion in  as  scientific  a  manner  as  our  present  knowledge 
permits. 

Just  as  the  curricula  of  various  types  of  Elementary 
Schools  vary  according  to  their  aims  and  purposes,  so  will 
the  time-table.  We  have  seen  that  for  children  up  to 
twelve  years  of  age  the  variation  is  small,  so  small  that  it 
appeared  desirable  and  even  necessary  to  lay  down  a 
general  outline  of  fundamentals.  From  that  age  the  varia- 
tions become  greater  and  more  numerous,  so  that  it  was 
even  found  essential  to  have  different  types  of  schools,  such 
as  Higher  Grade,  Higher  Elementary,  and  Central 
Schools.  Moreover,  in  the  ordinary  Elementary  Schools, 
after  the  age  of  twelve,  children  need  instruction  which 
will  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  type  of  life  they  are 
preparing  to  lead. 

i\t  the  present  time  Elementary  Education  is  organised 
in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  for  the  great  mass  of  children 
education  is  finished  at  fourteen.  When,  as  will  soon  be 
the  case,  this  education  is  continued  up  to  seventeen  and 
eighteen,  the  organisation  of  the  Elementary  Schools  will 
meet  with  corresponding  changes.  We  shall,  however, 
deal  with  things  as  they  are  now. 

The  first  matter  which  has  to  be  settled  is  the  amount 
of  time  to  be  given  to  each  subject  or  branch  of  a  subject. 
This  will  vary  according  to  the  value  attached  to  its  nature 
and  its  difficulty.  Enough  has  been  said  in  a  preceding 
chapter  on  the  first  of  these  points.     With  regard  to  the 


140  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

second,  it  is  clear  that  some  subjects,  such  as  drawing  and 
needlework,  and  in  fact  nearly  all  those  which  involve 
manual  dexterity,  require  longer  periods,  partly  because 
the  work  is  far  less  fatiguing  than  more  purely  mental  or 
book  work,  and  partly  because  the  actual  outlay  of  time 
i:)roduces  smaller  results,  and  completion  or  approximation 
to  completion  of  the  work  is  desirable  for  the  purpose  of 
comprehension  and  interest.  Such  occupations  often 
demand,  also,  the  distribution  and  collection  of  a  large 
amount  of  material  and  apparatus,  and  a  loss  of  valuable 
time  and  energy  would  result  from  placing  numerous  short 
periods  in  the  school  time-table. 

Lessons  involving  mental  strain  or  concentrated  atten- 
tion must  have  shorter  periods  allocated  to  them.  It  is 
quite  true  that  a  skilled  teacher,  by  giving  variety  of  treat- 
ment and  employment,  can  and  does  impart  instruction  in 
these  subjects  so  as  to  minimise  and  even  avoid  anything 
approaching  mental  strain.  But  the  average  teacher  must 
always  be  kept  in  mind  in  dealing  with  organisation  if  the 
general  success  of  the  school  work  is  to  be  ensured.  Hence, 
in  subjects  such  as  mathematics,  grammar,  or  reading 
lessons  to  younger  children,  frequent  and  short  periods 
should  be  the  rule. 

The  amount  of  time  given  to  each  subject  will  also  vary 
according  to  the  stage  of  development  and  knowledge 
reached  by  the  pupil.  The  younger  the  pupil,  the  less 
time  will  be  allotted  to  work  requiring  continuous  atten- 
tion. As  he  develops,  such  subjects  may  occupy  greater 
portions  of  the  time-table.  More  generally,  as  it  is  natural 
for  young  children's  attention  to  change  its  direction  fre- 
quently, all  the  school  activities  for  such  pupils  should 
engage  shorter  periods  than  those  for  older  scholars.  The 
mechanical  will  loom  larger  and  the  intellectual  smaller, 
but  both  will  involve  shorter  lessons. 

With  these  indications  supplied  by  a  study  of  the  child's 


THE  ELEMENTABY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  141 

nature,  it  is  possible  to  assign  an  approximate  division  of 
time  to  the  many  school  occupations.  Under  present 
regulations  the  infant  department  of  most  ordinary  Ele- 
mentary Schools  has  twenty-five  and  the  upper  depart- 
ments twenty-seven  and  a  half  hours  per  week  at  their 
disposal. 

The  considerations  which  will  affect  decisions  as  to  the 
distribution  of  the  lessons  over  the  week's  time-table  are 
in  general  far  less  difficult  than  those  used  when  framing 
curricula.  In  the  latter  case,  as  we  have  seen,  the  ulti- 
mate aim  and  purpose  of  education  must  be  considered ;  in 
the  former  it  is  largely  a  question  of  common-sense  expedi- 
ency— except,  however,  in  one  point.  Common  sense  has 
not  been  able  to  fix  upon  the  period  during  which  the 
mass  of  school-children  are  at  then"  freshest  and  best. 
Even  experimental  psychology  speaks  on  the  subject 
in  an  uncertain  way.  Some  teachers  have  cast  long- 
ing eyes  upon  the  time  devoted  to  Bible  instruction, 
and  have  wished  that  the  early  morning  hour  devoted  to 
it  could  be  used  for  more  difficult  subjects,  and  that  the 
Bible  instruction  might  be  given  at  a  time  less  precious 
but  equally  suitable.  They  assume  that  the  best  moments 
for  hard  mental  work  are  those  of  the  first  hour  at  school. 
The  general  tendency,  however,  of  the  results  of  psycho- 
logical enquiry  has  been  to  cast  discredit  on  this  assump- 
tion, and  to  place  the  best  period  for  work  somewhat  later 
in  the  morning.  Mental  freshness,  it  appears,  does  not 
begin  at  a  maximum  and  gradually  decrease  until  a  mini- 
mum is  reached.  The  middle  of  the  afternoon  may  even 
show  superiority  over  the  later  parts  of  the  morning.  For 
the  complete  solution  of  this  problem  we  still  have  to 
await  more  extensive  investigation.  In  the  meantime  we 
may  be  tolerably  certain  that  for  the  great  majority  of  our 
scholars  the  time  best  fitted  for  close  mental  application 
is  roughly  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  hours  after  the  open- 


142  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

ing  of  morning  school.  On  the  whole,  too,  the  morning 
work  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  afternoon,  although 
for  children  there  are  probably  parts  of  the  afternoon,  not 
too  near  the  lunch  hour,  superior  in  work  value  to  the  last 
part  of  the  morning.  The  prevalent  uncertainty  with 
regard  to  this  matter  has  produced  the  present  rough-and- 
ready  rule  that  the  theoretical  subjects  are  dealt  with  best 
in  the  morning  and  practical  subjects  in  the  afternoon, 
with  the  further  rule,  by  no  means,  however,  consistently 
followed,  that  studies  difficult  in  the  sense  that  they  re- 
quire unusual  or  prolonged  mental  effort  should  be  under- 
taken in  the  middle  part  of  the  morning. 

If  he  teacher  is  to  do  his  best  work,  provision  must  also 
be  made  in  the  time-table  for  alternating  the  easy  and  the 
difficult  lessons.  A  series  of  oral  lessons,  or  even  two, 
given  one  immediately  after  the  other,  involves  a  strain 
upon  the  voice  and  attention  of  the  teacher  which  is 
inimical  to  the  best  interests  of  the  class.  It  is  not  an 
altogether  rare  thing  to  find  a  history  lesson  following  a 
literature  lesson,  and  a  singing  lesson  following  the  his- 
tory lesson.  The  error  occurs  most  frequently  in  the 
afternoon  lessons,  in  which  the  time-table  constructor's 
attention  has  been  directed  too  entirely  to  the  necessity 
for  easing  the  strain  upon  the  pupils.  In  some  lessons, 
too,  such  as  handwork,  it  has  been  wrongly  assumed  that 
the  teacher's  part  is  almost  purely  passive,  but  in  practice 
it  is  found  that  the  teacher,  especially  the  young  teacher, 
finds  such  lessons  a  considerable  strain.  The  distribution 
and  collection  of  apparatus  without  disorder ;  the  meticu- 
lous directions  for  the  work,  without  which  no  presentable 
result  is  obtained  ;  and  the  individual  guidance  necessitated 
by  the  presence  of  abnormally  slow  children,  all  combine 
in  inexperienced  hands  to  make  the  lesson  very  fatiguing 
to  the  teacher.  A  singing  lesson,  again,  from  a  certain 
lofty  point  of  view,  involves  no  strain  ;  in  practice  it  may 


THE  ELEMENTAEY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  143 

mean  a  theory  lesson  to  an  abnormally  large  class,  or 
choral  work  with  two  or  tliree  classes  combined.  In  the 
first  case  the  lesson  is  difficult  and  exacting,  and  in  the 
second  the  numbers  involve  a  considerable  tax  on  the 
teacher's  energy.  In  the  physical  exercises,  too,  the 
use  of  the  voice  fatigues  the  teacher  and  makes  it  diffi- 
cult to  follow  on  with  some  other  oral  lesson.  So  far  as 
the  teacher  is  concerned,  it  is  probable  that  afternoon 
lessons  are  a  much  greater  strain  than  morning  lessons ; 
hence  great  care  should  be  taken  that  they  should  be  dis- 
tributed in  a  way  that  economises  the  energy  both  of  the 
pupils  and  of  the  teacher. 

In  schools  which  do  not  have  separate  rooms  for  all  the 
classes  some  attention  will  have  to  be  given  to  the  dis- 
turbing effects  of  some  lessons  upon  neighbouring  classes. 
A  reading  lesson,  for  example,  could  scarcely  proceed 
smoothly  if  the  next  class  were  engaged  in  choral  singing. 
A  thrilling  literature  or  history  lesson  might  make  it  diffi- 
cult for  another  class  to  work  at  arithmetic.  The  con- 
structor of  the  time-table  will  therefore  find  it  necessary  to 
have  before  him  a  plan  of  the  school  with  the  position  of 
the  classes  marked. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  examples  of  school 
time-tables  actually  in  use. 


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Nature  Talk. 

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Number.       Singing. 
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10.45-11.15 

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10.20-10.30 
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147 


THE  ELEMENTAKY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  149 


ANALYSIS  OF  PRECEDING  TIME-TABLE. 


riME  1 

[N  MrtnjTEs 

FOR  EACH  Grade 

PER  Week. 

Subjects. 

•i 

n 

6 

■i 

n 

d 

■< 

n 

6 

o 

H 

!^; 

H 

►^ 

►«4 

1-^ 

•^ 

»-i 

<t 

"■N 

^ 

1:3 

►-H 

!-«( 

>~^ 

K 

^ 

K 

CQ 

CQ 

OS 

CQ 

^ 

cS 

<5 

i;!3 

Cb 

(a)  English 

20 

20 

20 

20 

40 

45 

45 

25 

25 

45 

Composi- 

tion (Oral) 

(b)  Stories 

25 

25 

25 

25 

40 

45 

55 

50 

50 

75 

(c)  Reading 

16.5 

165 

165 

165 

125 

125 

125 

100 

100 

100 

(d)  Recita- 

45 

40 

45 

40 

50 

60 

55 

65 

60 

65 

tion 

(c)  Word- 

15 

30 

30 

30 

55 

55 

55 

35 

35 

50 

building 

(/)   Hand- 

120 

120 

120 

120 

110 

110 

120 

110 

110 

95 

writing 

Number     . . 

160 

160 

160 

160 

125 

125 

125 

70 

75 

65 

Drawing     . . 

40 

45 

45 

50 

65 

70 

75 

75 

80 

55 

Observation 

85 

80 

85 

75 

115 

90 

105 

70 

70 

75 

Lessons 

Physical  Ex- 

100 

100 

100 

95 

95 

95 

105 

125 

110 

130 

ercises 

Singing      . . 

95 

90 

80 

95 

80 

80 

85 

115 

110 

125 

Geography 

20 

20 

20 

20 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

History 

20 

20 

20 

20 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Occupations 

95 

90 

90 

90 

105 

105 

105 

140 

155 

140 

Scripture   . . 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Recreation 

130 

1.30 

1.30 

130 

130 

130 

130 

155 

1.55 

1.55 

Registration, 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

etc. 

Total      . . 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

II.— TIME-TABLE  OF  THE  BOYS'  DEPARTMENT  OF 

MORNING. 

Class 
No. 

9.0-0.15 

9.15-9.45. 

9.46 

9.45-10.30 

10.30- 
10.45 

10.45-11.15 

11.15-12.0 

1 

Old  Test. 

Atith. 

Composition. 

Drawing. 

in 

., 

,, 

Drill  to  11.15. 

Drawing. 

2 

., 

,, 

Composition. 

Drawing.                  i 

2b 

.^ 

„ 

Drawing  to 

11.40.          Drill.     ' 

g 

o 

3 

^^ 

,, 

>> 

c3 

Geography. 

Spelling      Drill.     ; 

to  11.35.                   1 

a 

4 
6 

6 

" 

II            10.15- 
10.30 

s 

Geography. 

Singing. 

Composition. 

Composition.           | 
Drawing.                  , 
Sing.      Reading. 

7 

" 

Drill. 

Reading. 

Comp.    Spelling. 

1 

New  Test. 

Arith. 

Drill  to  11.15. 

Science. 

in 

jj 

Organis 

ed  Games. 

i^ 

2 

- 

Science  to 

11.40.     Drill. 

< 

2n 

ID 

,[ 

tH 

>> 

Reading. 

Drawing. 

w 

3 

QJ 

^1 

Oi 

;            fi 

Geography. 

Prac.  Science. 

t> 

4 

Ol 

(ll 

Singing. 

Drawing. 

H 

5 

cS 

^ 

be 

Geography. 

Compo.sition. 

6 

(-1 

■a 
a 

J, 

ClayMoriulling. 

Reading. 

7 

" 

a 

:        1  Drill. 

Clay  Modelling. 

Reading. 

1 

Memory. 

Arith. 

Drawing  to 

11.35.     Comp. 

IB 

m 

,j 

>> 

Drill. 

Drawing. 

2 

a 

II 

O 

,, 

rt 

Compo.sition. 

Drawing. 

» 

2b 

o 

„ 

o 

, 

FM 

Drawing  to 

11.40.    1    Drill. 

ir, 

3 

C8 

,, 

13 

0  r 

g  a  n 

i  s  e  d    Gam 

e  s. 

1^ 

4 

Ut 

a 

, 

Geography. 

English. 

^ 

6 

0) 

rt 

^, 

Geography. 

Cardboard  Work. 

6 

CO 

Wi 

Drawing. 

Reading. 

7 

0) 

'• 

S3 
c8 

1  Drill. 

Drawing. 

Reading. 

1 

M   a 

n    u 

a   1. 

IB 

,a 

Memory. 

g 

Arith. 

Drawing  to 

11.40.  1    Drill.         1 

"4 

2 

a 

Old  Test. 

,, 

Drill  to  11.5.     Ge 

og.  to  11.40.   Sing. 

P 

2B 

Ol 

— 

,j 

Singing. 

Drawing.                  i 

3 

p3 

,, 

>> 

cfi 

Oral  Composition. 

Drawing. 

4 

•5 

,, 

Singing. 

English. 

n 

6 

II 

S 

„ 

s 

Singing. 

Comp.    Reading. 

6 

,j 

„ 

Singing. 

Comp.     Reading. 

7 

" 

" 

Spelling. 

Comp.     Reading. 

1 

New  Test. 

Arith. 

Hist,  and   Geog. 

to  11.30.     Comp. 

in 

„ 

Drawing.      |     Dri 

11.    1     Drawing. 

2 

Practical. 

Readg.  Drill. (Scie 

nee  to  11.35.1  Drill. 

2 

2B 

"< 

.. 

w 

Paper  Work. 

Drill. 

S 

3 

,, 

C3 

Geog.    Notes.   Co 

mp.       Reading. 

fc, 

4 
6 
6 

7 

„ 

II      1  Drill. 

El 

History. 
Drawing. 
Drawing. 
Drawing. 

Composition. 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 

15 

0 

lN  elementary  school  in  a  poor  district. 


AFTERNOON. 

- 

2.0-2.15 

2.15 

2.15-2.50 

2.50-3.20. 

3.20- 
3.30 

3.30-3.50 

3.50-4.20 

4.20- 
4.30 

Rec.  or  Readg. 

Hist,  and  Geog. 

Singing. 

Drill. 

Reading. 

Comp.  to  2.45. 

Composition. 

Singing. 

Ment.  or  Prac. 
Arith. 

Literature. 

Rec.  or  Readg. 

History. 

Singing. 

Writing. 

Geography. 

Mental  Arith. 

Organised 

Games. 

"k 

General  to  4.0. 

Reading. 

Recitation. 

Drawg.  to  2.40. 

Singing. 

s 

History  to  3.45. 

English. 

Recitation. 

Drill  to  3.0. 

Science. 

Spelling. 

Reading. 

Poetry. 

Science. 

Drill. 

Organised 

Games. 

Mental  Arith. 

Object  Lesson. 

Writing. 

Spelling. 

Reading. 

Mental  Aritli. 

Object  Lesson. 

Singing. 

Org.  Games. 

History. 

Mental  Arith. 

English  Gram. 

Arithmetic. 

Writing. 

Maps. 

Hygiene  Talk 

to  2.30. 

Arithmetic. 

Eng  Railways. 

Silent  Reading. 

Mental  Arith. 

a> 

Arithmetic. 

English. 

Reading. 

Composition. 

Hand    Train- 

tH 

ing  to  3.0. 

Drill. 

Dictation. 

Reading. 

Mrntal  Aritii. 

V 

Arithmetic. 

Singina. 

C3 

Spelling. 

Reading. 

Mental  Arith. 

m 

History  Notes. 

Geography. 

Ph 

Reading. 

Games. 

:c 

Mental  Aritli. 

bo 

Maps. 

Spelling. 

Dictation. 

Reading. 

o 

Poetry. 

History  to  2.10. 

Org.  Games. 

Drill. 

Geography. 

Poetry. 

Geography. 

Writing. 

Tables. 

Reading. 

C3 

Rec.  or  Readg. 

Hist,  and  Geog. 

Singing. 

Mental  Arith. 

Reading. 

a 

tti 

Alental  Arith. 

m 

to  2.30. 

Composition. 

Hist,  and  Geog. 

of  Brit.  Empire 

V 

O 

Org 

a  n  i  8  e  d 

G  a 

m  e  8. 

— ' 

« 

Mental  Arith. 

s 

Singing. 

Writing. 

Recitation. 

Reading. 

H 

T3 

Poetry. 

■n 

Science  to  3.0. 

Drill. 

Hist.  )  alterna- 
Geog.  /    tive. 

Reading. 

■3 

a 

OS 

Poetry. 

a 

Drill  to  2.40. 

Science. 

S 

Spelling. 

Reading. 

cS 

Science  to 

C3 

2.40.     Drill  3.0 

Poetryto3.20 

Composition. 

Reading. 

>i 

Mental  Arith. 

W) 

Object  Lesson. 

Writing. 

Drill. 

History. 

a 

Mental  Arith. 

a 

History. 

Writing. 

Singing. 

Reading. 

0) 

05 

CD 

58 

0  r  g 

a  n  i  8  e  d 

G  a 

m  e  8. 

f^ 

« 

a 

Ma 

n  u  a  1    T  r 

a  i  n 

i  n  g. 

-< 

Mental  Arith. 

History. 

Composition. 

Dra 

wing. 

Composition 

— 

to  2.40. 

Drill. 

Hand    Tr 

a  i  n  ing. 

Mental  Arith. 

c3 

Composition. 

Maps. 

rt 

Dictation. 

Reading. 

Mental  Arith. 

Writing. 

History. 

PM 

Drill. 

Reading. 

Mental  Arith. 

£ 

Reading. 

Dictation. 

History. 

Composition. 

Poetry. 

SpeU.  Hndwk. 

Drill. 

Spelling. 

Pleading. 

Poetry. 

Object  Lesson. 

Writing. 

Tables. 

Reading. 

Rec.  or  Readg. 

Science  to  3.0. 

Drill. 

D  ra 

wing. 

Composition 

to  2.50. 

Hygiene  Talk 

Poetry. 

Jvcading. 

Man 

u 

a  1        and 

Hand      a 

nd 

Eye      T  r  a 

i  n  i  n  g. 

Recitation. 

Writing. 

Drawing. 

Heiilth  Talks 
or  Gen.  Know. 

Silent  Reading. 

Poetry. 

Drill  to  2.35. 

Colour  Work. 

_rt|' 

Si)elling. 

Reading. 

Poetry. 

Arithmetic. 

Dictation. 

s 

Ta,l>les. 

Reading. 

Poetry. 

Writing. 

History. 

Drill. 

Priv.  Reading. 

Mental  Arith. 

Composition. 

Geography. 

Tables. 

Reading. 

Mental  Arith. 

Transcription. 

Singing. 

Tables. 

Reading. 

151 


152 


THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


ANALYSIS  OF  PKECEDING  TIME-TABLE. 

{Giving  Figures  for  Classes  1,  3,  and  7  only.) 


Subject. 

Class  1. 

Class  3. 

Class  7. 

{Age  13-14). 

(Age  11). 

(Agel). 

Composition    . . 

120 

110 



Composition  and  Spelling 

— 

— 

75 

Recitation  or  Reading 

45 

— 

— 

Reading 

60 

120 

315 

Recitation 

— 

45 

30 

Grammar 

,35 

— 

— 

Writing 

20 

— 

120 

Dictation 



20 

— 

Transcription 

— 

— 

30 

Spelling 

— 

60 

— 

Composition  and  Spelling 

— 

— 

75 

Total 

280 

355 

645 

History  and  Geography 

110 

160 

110 

Maps                

30 

30 

— 

Total    .. 

140 

190 

110 

Science 

90 

90 



Object  Lessons 

— 

— 

70 

Total    .. 

90 

90 

70 

Manual  Work  and  Organised 

Games 

215 

— 



Organised  Games 

— 

175 

20 

Modelling        

— 

— 

30 

Total    . . 

215 

175 

50 

Drill 

70 

75 

75 

Singing            

60 

60 

80 

Drawing 

145 

110 

60 

Arithmetic  \ 

Tables          / 

290 

290 

(270 
\  60 

Total    .. 

565 

535 

545 

Notes. — 1.  Class  1b  is  a  group  of  boys  from  11|^  to  14  years  of  age,  collected 
from  the  upper  standards  and  regarded  as  dull,  backward,  and 
in  many  cases  troublesome.  Class  2b  is  a  similar  group  of 
lads  from  9  to  11^. 

The    head-teacher   states   that   this   combing    out   helps 


THE  ELEMENTABY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  153 

discipline  greatly,  and  raises  the  standard  of  work  in  the 
other  classes.  The  view  of  the  writer  is  that  such  groups 
should  be  regarded  as  composed  of  pupils  not  necessarily  dull, 
but  characterised  by  non-bookish  and  manual  tendencies, 
and  that  the  "troublesome"  do  not  necessarily  fuid  their 
true  home  in  such  classes. 
2.  Class  1  is  Standards  VII.  and  Ex  VII.;  Class  2  is  Standard  VI., 
and  so  on  to  Class  7,  which  is  Standard  I. 

We  venture  to  use  the  preceding  time-table  and  analysis 
for  the  pm-pose  of  indicating  what  we  consider  to  be  certain 
characteristics  which  do  not  appear  to  the  writer  to  follow 
true  pedagogic  principles.^ 

1.  The  first  thing  which  would  naturally  strike  a 
student  of  this  time-table  is  the  great  difference  in  the  time 
spent  in  studying  the  various  sides  of  English  between  on 
the  one  hand  the  upper  and  middle  and  on  the  other  the 
lower  part  of  the  school.  While  the  lowest  class  seems  to 
have  secured  its  needed  quota,  the  other  classes  have 
come  very  short  of  it.  Four  or  five  hours  per  week 
is  not  sufficient.  Ten  hours  is  a  much  nearer  indica- 
tion of  the  true  position  English  should  take  in  the 
school. 

2.  At  first  sight  it  would  appear  that  the  large  amount 
of  time  devoted  in  the  seventh  class  to  overcoming  the 
technical  difficulties  of  reading  does  not  find  its  natural 
employment  by  the  elder  boys  in  the  reading  and  study  of 
literature.  One  would  expect  to  find  a  much  larger 
amount  of  time  given  in  the  higher  classes  to  reaping  the 
fruits  of  so  much  mechanical  work  done  in  the  lower 
school. 

8.  Apparently  the  lowest  class  niaiuial  training  occuj)ies 

^  The  courtesy  with  which  variouH  time-tables  have  been  put  at  ray 
disposal  would  be  ill-requited  if  anonymity  were  not  kept,  or  if  I 
should  venture  to  do  more  than  indicate  for  the  instruction  of  others 
where  I  think  errors  have  been  made.  In  any  case  time-tables  are 
frequently  heirlooms,  and  not  the  work  of  the  head-teachers  who  have 
80  kindly  given  mo  copies. 


154  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

thirty  minutes  weekly;  the  third  class  has  none,  and  the 
highest  the  whole  of  one  morning.  There  is  as  much  or 
more  need  that  the  younger  boys  should  express  them- 
selves in  this  way.  The  middle  class,  again,  has  con- 
siderable time  allotted  for  organised  games,  the  lowest 
only  twenty  minutes.  And  a  similar  discrepancy  exists 
in  the  case  of  drawing. 

There  is  no  need  to  criticise  in  further  detail ;  but  per- 
haps sufficient  has  been  said  to  help  the  student  to  a 
further  critical  examination  for  himself. 

We  may  next  examine  the  time-table  on  pp.  156  and 
157  of  a  school  situated  in  a  better-class  London  district,  a 
school  deservedly  well  known  for  the  excellence  of  the 
work  done  and  for  its  examination  successes. 

The  table  on  p.  158  shows  the  apportionment  of  time  to 
the  various  subjects,  and  allows  of  easy  comparison  with 
that  of  the  preceding  school. 

We  will  note  a  few  of  the  outstanding  features  of  the 
following  time-table  : 

1.  The  amount  of  time  allotted  to  EngHsh  in  Class  1  is 
not  great — only  six  hours  weekly — more,  however,  than  in 
the  previous  time-table.  The  disparity,  too,  between  the 
time  allotted  to  English  in  Class  1  and  in  Class  7  is 
rather  striking.  Here  the  younger  children  have  the 
advantage  in  reading,  recitation,  writing,  dictation  and 
transcription,  although  we  should  expect  to  find  the  re- 
duction or  omission  in  the  top  class  compensated  by  a 
larger  amount  of  literature.  It  might  also  be  argued  that 
the  sixty-five  minutes  for  composition  is  too  little. 

2.  The  attention  given  to  spelling  seems  to  suggest 
that  great  care  is  taken  to  give  a  sound  foundation.  The 
effects  of  this  regular  work  are  probably  to  be  seen  in  all 
the  written  exercises. 

3.  History  and  geography  in  the  upper  classes  are  given 


THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  155 

more  time  than  is  usual,  together  more  than  half  as  much 
as  is  devoted  to  English. 

4.  Arithmetic  always  demands  its  full  quota,  and  gener- 
ally gets  it.  It  might  be  suggested,  not  in  particular 
reference  to  this  time-table,  but  in  general,  that  if  the 
arithmetical  side  of  geography,  science,  manual  work,  and 
drawing  were  fully  developed,  a  corresponding  diminu- 
tion might  be  made  in  the  time  given  to  the  formal  arith- 
metic lesson. 

5.  It  is  refreshing  to  see  that  singing  receives  the  atten- 
tion it  deserves. 

6.  This  digest  illustrates,  as  most  Elementary  School 
time-tables  do,  a  peculiarity  with  regard  to  views  concern- 
ing handwork.  The  lower  and  top  departments  of  the 
school  enjoy  the  benefits  of  this  invaluable  training,  the 
middle  of  the  school  does  not.  This  is  an  anomaly  that 
should  soon  come  to  an  end. 


III.— TIME-TABLE  OF  AN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  (BOYS' 

MORNING 

« 

lO 

o 

m  o  lo  o  in  o 

<-l  (N  IM   CO   TO  T* 

lO  lO  o 

o 

i-HIMOJCOCO^-^lftlAO 

o 
1 

Oi 

o> 

Od  O)  Gd  03  Od  C> 

OS     caooooooooooo 

O    O    -H 

rt  rH  rn 

^   " 

rH,-lr-lr-ir-('-<rH,Hi-l») 

J^^              Geography. 

Spelling. 

Arithmetic. 

~ 

p"?        Art  and  Drawing. 

Art 

and  Drawing. 

< 
a 

■A 
O 

A 
4 
5 

Hymns 

and 

Repetition. 

^>  Drill.  1           History. 

English.            1    Drill. 
1         Singing.              Maps. 

•' 

Arithmetic. 

7 

1 

8 
•I 

5 
6 

7 

1 

3 

4 
5 

7 

_ 

1 
2 
3 
4 

6 

7 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

o 

>> 

u 

S  ^    Transcrip- 
_jS       tion. 
^       Transcrip- 
tion. 

Geography. 
Recitation. 

a 
o 

a 

» 

» 

< 

Q 
H 

New 

Testament 

History. 

Theoretical 

Scienc 
Drill.  1 
Geography. 
Geography. 
Composition. 

Singing. 

English. 

1  Drill. 

English. 

1  llecitn. 
Recitation. 
Geography. 

Dictation. 

Dictation. 

" 

Arith 
Spelling. 

metic. 

> 
■< 

a 

a 
■e. 

Q 

Old 

Testament 

History. 

Drill.  1          History. 

-cl       Geography.          Drill. 

^2  Theoretical                 Oral 

.'?           Science.          Compn. 

^  1.  Geograpliy.l      Dictation. 

.>::j  Composition.       Reading. 

S>-     Science.           Writing. 

Geography.         Writing. 

"Arith 
Spelling. 

Recitation. 
Spelling. 

metic. 

< 

« 
n 

New 

Testament 

History. 

r^            Practical  Science. 
2       Singing.            1  Recitn. 
'^       Singing.             |  Recitn. 
1        History.     |   Recitation. 
M      Object  Lesson.  |      Drill. 
^     Dictation.          History. 
Science.         Dictation. 

"Arith 

metic. 

Q 

Old 

Testament 
History. 

History. 
1                  Composition. 
1.   .Hist.  Notes.  |         Arith. 
tJH  Drill.  1          Science. 
'-' g  Geography.      Dictation. 
2       Oral    1          Science. 
Comp.  1 

History.        Dictation. 

Reading. 

Practical  Science. 
Arithmetic. 

7 

" 

Swimming. 


-At  the  Baths — Mondays, 
At  the  Park — Tuesdays 


156 


DEPAETMENT)  IN  A  GOOD  CLASS  NEIGHBOURHOOD. 


AFTERNOON. 


o    lo    o    o 


ta    o    lO    o    ^ 


o   ui   o   >n   o 


ffie^oioioieiNweiiNcocoeoeoeococo 


lO      O      lO 


o    lo    o    lo    o 


iOiOOiO»-Hi-H(M(Mco 


Arithmetic. 

(a)  Practical  Science. 
(6)  Singing. 

Singing. 
Literature. 
Drawing. 
Drawing. 


Science. 


Beading. 


Practical  Science. 
History. 
Reading. 
Science. 
History. 
English. 
I      Drill. 


(a)  Arithmetic 
(6)  Drawing. 
Literature. 

Drawing. 
Object  Lesson.     | 
Handwork. 
Singing.        I 


Drawing. 

I       English 


I   Geometry 

I 
Dictation. 

I 
Reading. 


Exercises. 

I         Drill. 
Composition. 
I  Recitation. 
Reading. 

I  Recitation. 


Recitation. 
H    Theoretical  Science. 


Drawing. 


Singing. 
History. 


Reading.    I  History. 

English.     I  Writing.  |     Drill. 

Singing.  |  Composition. 

Drawing.  I  Reading 


H 

Singing. 

Geography. 

Arithmetic. 

Maps. 

S3 

Maps. 

Composition. 

1 

Drawing. 

Composition. 

a 

,j 

Reading. 

,, 

Geography. 

u 

" 

Reading. 

H  Recitatn. 


Composition. 


I     DrUl. 
Drill.  Geography. 

Arithmetic.  I  History  Notes. 

OeoKraphy  and  Maps.   |  Singing. 

'.       Composition.      |        English.  |        Reading. 

B  English  Exercises.     |  Dictation. 


English 
Exercises. 


Oral 
Compn. 


Geography. 


Reading. 

Reading. 

Composition. 

Arithmetic. 

Reading.  I     Drill. 


DriU. 
Recitation. 


Reading. 
History. 


Drawing. 
Drawing. 


Reading. 
Dictation. 

Spellg. 


English 
Singing. 

Reading 
History.  |      Drill. 

Drill.    I  Writing, 


Literature. 

Literature. 

Drawing.  |       Drill. 

English.  I  Spellg. 

Singing.  |    Recitation. 

Drill.    I       Recitation. 
Singing.  I     Spelling. 


English. 

Practical  Science. 

Reading. 


Drill. 

History. 
Composition. 
Composition. 


Reading. 

Recitation. 

Spelling. 

Drill. 


Reading. 

Reading. 

Practical  Science. 

Reading. 

Lantern  (History  or  Geography). 

Reading  and  Recitation. 

Reading  and  Recitation. 


4.0-4.30;  Thursdays,  11.30-12.0. 
9.0-9,40. 


157 


158 


THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


ANALYSIS  OF  PRECEDING  TIME-TABLE. 


Age. 

13-14. 

12-13. 

11-12. 

10-11. 

9-10. 

8-9. 

7-8. 

Subject. 

Class  1. 

Class  2. 

Class  3. 

Class  4. 

Class  5. 

Class  6. 

Class  7. 

Prayers  and  Re- 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

gistration 

Scripture 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

Composition 

65 

75 

SO 

105 

95 

100 

80 

Reading 

65 

65 

s.o 

125 

150 

160 

185 

Recitation     . . 

40 

45 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

Writing 

— 

— 

— 

— 

30 

30 

60 

Dictation    and 

50 

40 

00 

95 

195 

115 

120 

Spelling 

Literature   ) 

45 

45 

50 

50 

— 

— 

60  f 

English        J 

95 

75 

60 

70 

75 

80 

Total    .. 

360 

345 

375 

495 

510 

645 

570 

80 

70 

History        \ 
Geography  / 

210 

220 

200 

ISO 

190  ^ 
85 

80 

70 

95 

105 

105 

80 

160 

140 

Science  or  Ob- 

75 

70 

ject  Drawing 

Manual  Work 

140 

140 

140 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Handwork     . . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

40 

40 

Drill   .. 

60 

60 

00 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Singing 

90 

90 

80 

80 

80 

75 

75 

Drawing 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

Optional  (Lan- 

— 

— 

— 

50 

30 

— 

— 

tern,  etc.) 

Arithmetic    . . 

250 

245 

245 

250 

250 

250 

250 

Recreation    . . 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Notes. — 1.  In  this  school  "English"  may  be,  and  usually  is,  a  literature 
lesson.  The  lessons  denominated  "Literature"  are  those 
given  by  the  head-teacher. 
2.  The  lowest  class  is  Standard  II.,  and  the  head-teacher  states 
that  he  does  not  find  the  fifty  minutes  for  mental  and  written 
work  in  arithmetic  too  long. 


IV.— TIME-TABLE    OF    THE    BOYS'    DEPARTMENT    OF    AN 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  IN  MIXED  NEIGHBOURHOOD. 
A.M.  P.M. 


o 

0 

0  S  't 

■0  ".  0 

0 

1 

CO 

q 

0 

lO             0 

•*                   CO 

o 

X   1  0 

'7 

0 

1 

c4 

4 

CO 

0 

■0                           Ttl 

si 

=>52 

0 

^ 

S 

ci 

ei 

■O'                   CO 

VII. 

Drill. 

Geog.  11.40. 

Lit. 

Arith. 

Literature. 

Comp. 

VI. 

Drill 

Hist.  11.30. 

Lit. 

Arith. 

Comp. 

Reading. 

V.A&B 

Drill. 

Geog. 

Lit. 

Arith. 

Comp. 

History. 

(H 

IV. 

Lit. 

Gram.  11.40. 

DriU. 

Read.  2.35. 

Music  3.5 

Science. 

^ 

11.10. 

Writg.  3.35 

III. 

^lusic. 

Geog.  11.30. 

Diet. 

Prac.  Arith 

Reading. 

DriU  4.5 

o 

Diet.  4.25 

S 

II.  A 

Music. 

Geog.  11.40. 

Lit. 

Handwork. 

History. 

Music  4.10 
DriU  4.30 

Read. 

Geog. 

Lit. 

Music  3.20 

DriU  4.5 

II.B 

Handwork. 

Read.  3.35 

Hist.  4.30 

VII. 

Comp. 

Sci 

en  ce. 

Drawing. 

Music. 

Reading. 

11.20. 

VI. 

Gram. 

Read. 

Comp. 

jj 

Music. 

Science. 

V.A&B 

Head. 
11.20. 

Sci 

ence. 

■• 

Arith. 

Comp. 

w 

IV. 

cr 

DriU. 

Read.  11.20. 

Handwk. 

„ 

Comp. 

History. 

& 

III. 

C3 

DriU. 

Read.  11.20. 

Geog. 

^j 

Science. 

History. 

H 

ii.A       : 

- 

Head. 
11.10. 

Gram.  11.40. 

Drill. 

•■ 

Comp. 

Science. 

II.B 

u 

Read. 

Gram.  11.40. 

Drill. 

,, 

Comp.           '1  Science. 

0 

11.10. 

0 

VII. 

DriU. 

Music. 

Comp. 

Arith. 

History.       * 

J  Reading. 

VI.      »; 

" 

DriU. 

Music. 

Lit. 

Comp. 

(ieography. 

I  Reading. 

t^ 

V.A&B    ^ 

L,    —        . 

DriU. 

Read. 

Diet. 

History. 

Gram.  3.10   ^ 

.  Reading. 

-» 

3 

3   *"    * 

Music  3  35     [ 

P 

IV.         f 

OJ    oc 

History. 

Diet. 

Lit. 

Lit.  2.20 

Handwork.  T 

Science. 

[^ 
^ 

"I-       ft 

3  ■" 

Uram. 

Diet. 

Lit. 

Lit.  2.20 

Music  3.10     " 

Comp. 

P 

^  -   «J 

Comp.  2.50 

Writ.  3.35    - 

II.A           7; 

^  «    " 

Read. 

Diet. 

History. 

Lit.  2.50 

Writ.  3.6 

Reading. 

' 

-  -  i^ 

Music  2.50 

Diet.  3.35 

n.B 

'    ^ 

Writing. 

Diet. 

Read. 

Lit.  2.3U 

Hist.  3.10     t 

^  Reading. 

73  - 

-  -< 

3 

Hist.  2.50 

Music  3.35     , 

VII.            = 

Gram. 

Sci 

ence. 

Drawing. 

Geography.  I 

Comp. 

p 

^ 

11.20. 

VI. 

Gram. 

11.20. 
Gram. 

Compo 

sition. 

» 

History.       «. 

Science 

-1 

V.A&B         '^ 

3 

Compo 

si  tion. 

Writ.  3.10    !: 
Lit.  3.35 

Science. 

p 

11.15. 

P3 

IV.               ' 

^ 

Read. 

Diet.  11.20. 

Geog. 

,, 

Writ.  3.5 

History. 

P 

ii 

Music  3.35 

III. 

Drill. 

Read.  11.40. 

Music. 

,, 

Science. 

History. 

n.A 

Read. 
11.10. 

iTum.  11.40. 

Drill. 

" 

Uomp. 

Science. 

II.B 

Diet. 

Gram.  11.40. 

Drill. 

1^ 

Comp. 

Science. 

11.10. 

VII. 

Drill. 

Gram. 

Lit. 

Teat. 

rlistory. 

Literature. 

VI. 

Drill. 

Jrara. 

Dist. 

Test. 

ieograjihy. 

Literature. 

V.A&B 

Drill. 

Geog. 

aead. 

Test. 

Lit.  3.10 
\lu.sic  3.35 

Literature. 

tH' 

IV. 

Comp. 

niram. 

lead. 

Test.  2.30 

Llonip. 

Read.  4.5 

Drill  2.50 

Lit.  4.30 

III. 

iram. 

ieog.  11.40. 

Writing. 

Test.  2.:i() 

landwork. 

II.A 

Handwork 
2.36 

Diet. 

leog.  H.40. 

Writing. 

ij 

laiidwork. 

II.B 

Diet.         < 

Jeog.  11.40. 

Writing. 

„ 

landwork. 

"• 

159 


v.— TIME-TABLE  OF  THE  GIELS'  DEPARTMENT  OF 

MORNING. 


SWs. 

9.0- 
9.10 

9.10- 
9.40 

9.45     9.40-10.30 

10.30-10.40 

10.40-11.0 

11.0-11.30 

11.30-12.0 

< 
c 

"A 
O 

5 

VII. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

III. 
II. 

La 
Lb 

Arithmetic. 

Recreation. 

Homewk.  Test. 
Home  Reading. 

Grammar. 

Grammar. 
Geography. 
Nat.  Study. 
History. 

Composition. 

Reading. 

Reading. 

Singing. 

Singing. 
Geography. 
Literature. 
Literature. 

History. 
History. 
Geography. 

< 

s 

& 
H 

VII. 
VI. 

V. 
IV. 

III. 
II. 

La 
Lb 

VII. 
VI. 

V- 
IV. 

III. 
II. 

La 

LB 

a 
>> 
eS 

Ph 

•o 
d 
es 

a 
o 

c« 

to 

C£ 
a> 
P3 

a 
a> 

ID 

o 

9.40-     10.0- 
10.0     10.30 
Lit.      Sing. 

Arithmetic. 

Cookery 
Recreation. 

or  Laundry 
Homewk.  Test. 

Home  Reading. 

or  House 
Geography. 

History. 

Geography. 

Literature. 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 

wi  f  e  ry. 
Geography. 

History. 

Geography. 

Geography. 

Geography. 
Geography. 
Drill. 

> 

P 

V 

ii 
3 

ft 

bl 

o 

a 

o 
t) 

■a 

d 

CS 

Arithmetic. 

Recreation. 

Homewk.  Test. 
Home  Reading. 

Nat.  Study. 
Drawing 

Drawing. 

Literature. 

Singiug. 

Drawing. 

Singing. 

Composition. 

Nat.  Study. 
Drawing. 

Drawing. 

Literature. 

Singing. 

Drawing. 

Singing. 

Reading. 

P 
0 

a 

VII. 

VI. 
V. 

IV. 
III. 

II. 
La 

LB 

a 

d 

M 

c3 

d 

Arithmetic. 

Recreation. 

Homewk.  Test. 
Home  Reading. 

History. 

Composition. 
Nat.  Study. 

History. 
Geography. 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Org.  Games. 

History. 

Composition. 
Nat.  Study. 

Literature. 
Reading  of 

Geography. 
Recitation. 
Handwork. 
Reading. 

P 

2 

EC4 

VII. 

VI. 
V. 

IV. 

III. 
II. 
La 
Lb 

Arithmetic. 

Recreation. 

Homewk.  Test. 
Home  Reading 

Geography. 

History. 
Literature. 

History. 

History. 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 

Geography. 

History. 
Literature. 

Reading  of 

History 
Literature. 
Nat.  Study. 
Nat.  Study. 
History. 

Note. — Teachers  specialise  in  Art  and  Music,  History  and 

160 


AN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  IN  A  POOR  DISTRICT. 

AFTERNOON. 


2.0 

2.0-2.30 

2.15 

■ 

2.30-3.0 

3.0-3.20 

3.20-3.30 

3.30-4.0  . 

4.0-4.25 

4.30 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

Literature. 

Recreation. 

Drill. 

Reading  of 
Geography. 

Nat.  Study. 

Nat.  Study. 

Literature. 

Org.  Games. 

Literature. 

Composition. 

Composition. 

Literature. 

Literature. 

Drill. 

Singing. 

Singing. 

Org.  Games. 

jj 

Reading      or 

Geography. 

Drawing. 

Drawing. 

Reading  of 
Geography. 

■• 

Knitting. 

Knitting. 

Drill. 

Writing. 

Writing. 

J, 

Reading. 

Reading. 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

J, 

Reading. 

Reading. 

Knitting. 

Writing. 

Writing. 

.. 

Reading. 

Reading. 

Drawing. 

Drawing. 

Map  Drawg. 

Recreation. 

Literature. 

Literature. 

Literature. 

(H 

Literature. 

Literature. 

" 

Drill. 

Reading   of 
Geography. 

Singing. 

*J 

Singing. 

Drill. 

,, 

Reading     or'Geograpliy. 

'  Composition. 

2     Composition. 

Literature. 

J, 

Literature. 

Drill. 

Nat.  Study. 

'to     Nat.  Study. 

Recitation. 

ij 

Org.  Games. 

Reading   of 

<i>   i 

j 

History. 

a 

Needlework. 

rt     Needlework. 

Needlework. 

,,          1  Composition. 

Composition. 

o 

Drawing. 

^   ,  Drawing. 

Composition. 

„           1  Reading. 

Reading. 

*i 

Singing. 

o   1  Singing. 

Recitation. 

,,          1  Reading. 

Reading. 

03 

Literature. 

so  i  Drill. 

Literature. 

Recreation.   Oral  Compn. 

Singing. 

m 

Needlework. 

p,   !  Needlework. 

Needlework. 

„           Literature. 

Reading  of 
Hi8U>ry     . 

•-* 

Needlework. 

"   1  Needlework. 

Needlework. 

„            Composition. 

Literature. 

-5 

<o 

Drawing. 

°     Drawing. 

Drill. 

„            Literature. 

Nat.  Study. 

C3 

P^ 

Composition. 

o     Compo.sition. 

Literature. 

,,            Reading  of 
History. 

Drill. 

a 

■a 

Composition. 

■^   1  Composition. 

Spelling. 

„           '  Reading     of 

History. 

a 

Composition. 

^   i  Home  Readg. 

Spelling. 

1  Drill. 

Recitation. 

." 

a 

Needlework. 

■^     Needlework. 

Needlework. 

.. 

Reading. 

Reading. 

o 

>> 

Needlework. 

'^  1  Needlework. 

Org.  Games. 

Recreation. 

Reading  of 

Literature. 

T3 

— 

a 

History. 

a 

Xi 

Cookery 

iA 

L  a  u  n 

dry. 

or 

House 

w  i  f  e  r  y. 

cS 

a 

History. 

u 

Reading  of 

Map  Drawg. 

Recreation. 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

a 

o 

e3 

History. 

u 

<n 

.Veedlework. 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

jj 

Composition. 

Composition. 

>> 

^ 

Needlework. 

-3 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

» 

Writing. 

Writing. 

eg 

Singing. 

a 

Singing. 

Ment.  Arith.  1 

Reading. 

Drill. 

fri 

Drill. 

;V| 

Krdtting. 

Knitting.       | 

Reading. 

Reading. 

Nat.  Study. 

Handwork. 

Ment.  Arith.             „ 

Composition. 

Composition. 

Silent  Readg. 

Composition. 

Composition.  Recreation. 

Literature. 

Liter.iture. 

with 

Note-mkg. 

Drill. 

Map  Drawg. 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

,1 

Note-mkg. 

Org.  Games. 

ij 

Literature. 

Literature. 

with 

,, 

Literature. 

Literature. 

,, 

Needlework. 

Needlework. 

Literature. 

Literature. 

Oral  Compn. 

Drill. 

SilentReadg. 

Knitting. 

Knitting.       |           „ 

Handwork. 

Org.  Games. 

jj 

Writing. 

Writing.                  „ 

Org.  Games. 

Compo.sition. 

" 

Drawing  and 

i 

Handwork.    I          „ 

Drill. 

Recitation. 

Science.    The  effect  of  this  is  seen  in  the  time-table. 

161 


11 


DIGEST  OF  PRECEDING  TIME-TABLE 


Standards. 


(a)  English  Composition 
(W.) 

(b)  English  Composition 
(Oral) 

(c)  Spelling 

(d)  Grammar 

(e)  Reading  (see  Litera- 
ture) 

(/)  Recitation  (see  Litera- 
ture) 

(g)  Word-building  (in- 
cluded in  Spelling) 

(h)  Handwriting 

(i)  Literature 

Arithmetic 

Drawing  (Handwork)    . . 

Observation  Lessons  and 
Nature  Study 

Hygiene  . . 

Geography 

History    , . 

Singing 

Physical  Exercises 

Swimming  and  Organised 
Games 

Needlework 

Homework,  Test 

Domestic  Subjects 

Literature  IV. -VII.  (in- 
cluding the  reading  of 
all  books  other  than 
History  and  Geography, 
also  Recitation) 

Scripture 

Recreation 

Registration 


VII. 


80 


235 

200 

60 

60 


80 

120 

80 

180 


120 

90 
65 


VI. 


II. 


60 


205 

200 

60 

60 


90 

135 
100 
150 


150 

90 
70 


V. 


III. 


90 


85 


250 

250 

60 

60 


65 

135 

100 


150 
100 

75 


IV. 


IV. 


iir 


85 


280 

250 

60 

55 


65 

135 
100 


150 

100 

75 


III. 


V. 


90 


105 
40 


55 

190 

250 

60 

60 


80 


135 

100 


150 
100 

75 


IL  La.  Lb. 


VL  I  VII.  VIIL 


145   75 


20   20 


260 
30 


50 

270 
90 
30 


80 

130 
100 


150 

100 

75 


345 

25 


50 

270 
90 
30 


90 


130 
100 


150  150 

100  100 

75   75 


Total 


1,650 


1,650 


1,650 


1,650 


1,650 


1,650 


1,650  1,650 


SUBJECTS  TAUGHT  OFF  THE  PREMISES. 


Swimming 
Domestic  Subjects 


Remarks  (if  any). 


Taken  by  about  60    girls  in  Stds.  IV.,  V.,  VL, 

and    VII.,    on    Thursday    Afternoons     in     the 

Summer. 
All  girls  in    Std.  VII.  attend   Cookery,  Laundry, 

or    Housewifery,    on     Tuesday    Morning,    and 

Std.  VI.  on  Thursday  Afternoon. 


162 


164 


THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


ANALYSIS  OF  PRECEDING  TIME-TABLE. 


Time  in 

MlNtTTES. 

Class  1. 

Class  2. 

Class  3. 

Class  4. 

Scripture  . . 

150 

150 

150 

150 

Mathematics 

240 

200 

220 

240 

French 

245 

240 

240 

240 

Science 

60 

60 

50 

40 

Drawing    , . 

80 

75 

100 

90 

Bookkeeping 

80 

70 

— 

— 

Literature 

120 

120 

120 

80 

Geography 

115 

SO 

120 

110 

History 

70 

80 

70 

70 

Shorthand 

80 

— 

— 

• — 

Composition 

80 

80 

80 

120 

Grammar  . . 

35 

70 

35 

75 

Recitation  \ 
Reading     / 

35 

1  50 

30 

60 

^  70 

SO 

80 

Dictation  . . 

40 

60 

60 

30 

Music 

60 

60 

80 

60 

Physical  Exercises 

70 

60 

90 

80 

Recreation 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Total 

1,650 

1,650 

1,650 

I     1,650 

Notes. — 1.  Only  the  upper  section  (Classes  1,  2,  3,  and  4)  of  this  school  is  of 
higher  grade. 

2.  The  absence  in  the  Army  of  the  Science  teacher  accounts  for  the 

short  period  allotted  to  this  subject.     The  laboratory  holds 
only  twenty  pupils. 

3.  Specialisation   has   also   been    much   reduced   owing   to   war 

conditions. 

4.  The  school  is  rather  cramped,  and  this  fact  has  had  its  effect 

upon  the  time-table. 


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166  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

The  time-tables  of  Central  Schools  will  naturally  show 
rather  more  diversity  than  those  of  the  ordinary  Ele- 
mentary Schools,  since  the  character  of  the  curriculum 
would  be  more  influenced  and  modified  by  the  needs  of 
the  district,  by  the  local  trades  and  occupations,  and  the 
avocations  and  social  class  of  the  parents.  At  the  same 
time,  the  instruction  is  rightly  of  a  general  kind,  and  on 
such  liberal  lines  as  will  afford  opportunity  for  the  growth 
of  general  culture  and  will  make  appeal  to  any  and  every 
power  the  pupil  may  possess. 

The  head-teacher  of  a  Central  School  has  in  his  own 
hands  the  framing  of  the  cuniculum,  and  may  handle  the 
problem  with  such  freedom  as  either  to  differentiate  in  a 
pronounced  fashion  between  the  commercial  and  indus- 
trial aspects  or  to  almost  obliterate  the  distinction  between 
them.  He  may  allot  eight  hours  weekly  to  French  and 
four  to  English,  or  vice  versa;  he  may  include  or  omit 
shorthand;  in  fact,  his  freedom  is  very  considerable.  At 
present  this  freedom  is  not  entirely  an  evil,  as  the  Central 
School  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  and  it  is  still 
uncertain  what  form  its  curriculum  will  finally  take. 
Moreover,  the  head-teachers  are  presumably  the  most 
gifted  and  experienced  from  the  ranks  of  elementary 
teachers,  and  may  be  trusted  to  make  good  use  of  their 
freedom. 

The  digest  and  time-table  given  on  pp.  167,  108,  and 
169  are  those  of  a  Commercial  Central  School  for  boys 
drawn  from  a  residential  neighbourhood  of  clerks,  business 
and  trades  people  of  A^arious  kinds — in  other  words,  from 
a  "respectable"  suburban  quarter. 

There  are  many  points  of  interest  in  the  time-table  on 
pp.  170  and  171,  a  short  discussion  of  which  may  throw 
some  light  on  the  difiiculties  encountered  in  framing 
curricula  and  time-tables. 


DIGEST  OF  FOLLOWING  TIME-TABLE. 


4:th  Year. 

3rd 

Year.         2nd  Year. 

\st 

Year. 

Lessons. 

CI.  I. 

A. 
CI.  II. 

B. 
CI.  III. 

A. 
CI.  IV. 

B. 

Cl.V. 

A. 
CI.  VI. 

B. 
CI.  VII. 

Scripture   . . 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

English 

220 

250 

220 

240 

210 

200 

190 

Mathematics  (Arith- 
metic),   Algebra, 
and        Practical 
Mathematics     . . 

400 

320 

370 

400 

430 

380 

340 

History 

80 

70 

80 

70 

60 

80 

70 

Geography 

80 

70 

70 

80 

70 

70 

80 

Science 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

140 

140 

Handicraft 

— 

150 

150 

150 

150 

— 

— 

Drawing     . . 

80 

80 

80 

80 

100 

120 

120 

Singing      . . 

— 

— 

— 

60 

60 

70 

70 

French 

240 

240 

210 

240 

220 

290 

310 

Shorthand          and 
Bookkeeping     . . 

160 

120 

120 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Business  Routine 

40 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Correspondence    . . 

40 

40 

40 

30 

— 

— 

— 

Physical  Exercises 

50 

70 

70 

60 

80 

50 

40 

Notes — 1.  Physical  Education. — In  winter  lessons  occur  three  times  a  week. 
In  summer  the  swimming  lesson  takes  the  place  of  one. 

2.  Singing  is  taught  only  in  the  1st  and  2nd  years.     The  voice  then 

begins  to  break. 

3.  Owing  to  the  war,  and  depletion  of  Staff,  Science  is  taken  only 

during  the  1st  year  (2  hours  a  week  in  Laboratory);  Manual 
Training  during  tlic  2nd  year  and  lird  year  ;  Shorthand, 
Bookk(3eping,  and  Typewriting  during  the  4th  year.  In  this 
way  all  pupils  receive  some  training  in  all  those  branches. 

4.  The  Scripture  lesson  (9.0  to  9.30)  is  not  shown. 

167 


VIII.— WAR  TIME-TABLE  OF  A  CENTRAL 


9.30                    10.10                   10.50 

■11.0                     11.30                  12.0 

4th  yr. 

1.  Arithmetic. 

Geography. 

Geometry       and 

Trigonometry. 

3rd /A 
yr.  IB 

2.                      Man 

u  a  1 

Train 

i  n  g  . 

3.  Arithmetio. 

French. 

Physical  Exs. 

Geography. 

2ndfA 

4.  Metric  Arith.  and 

Algebra. 

F  r  e 

n  0  h  . 

Mensuration. 

5.  French. 

Metric  Arith. 

j  History. 

Composition. 

1st  (A 
yr.   IB 

6.  Science  or  Gramm'ar  and  French. 

1  Science    or    Gram 

mar  and  French. 

7.  Metric  Arith. 

History. 

Algebra. 

Music. 

1.  Mensuration. 

Shorthand. 

Fro 

n  c  h  . 

2.  Booldceeping. 

Physical  Exs. 

Geography. 

French. 

3.                Draw 

i  n  g  . 

French. 

Metric  Arith. 

4.  French. 

Geography. 

;  Physical  Exs. 

Geometry. 

5.  Arithmetic. 

French. 

Poetry. 

Spelling. 

6.  Algebra. 

Metric  Arith. 

Draw 

i  n  g  . 

7.  Science  or  Gramm 

ar  and  French. 

Science    or    Gram 

mar  and  French. 

1.  History. 

French. 

Bookkeeping. 

2.  Shorthand. 

Metric  Arith. 

Composition. 

Derivation. 

3.                     Man 

u  a  1 

Train 

i  n  g  . 

4.  Arithmetic. 

French. 

Music. 

Poetry. 

5.  Geography. 

Mental  Arith. 

F  r  e 

n  c  h  . 

6.  French. 

Mental  Arith.  or 
Physical  Exs. 

G  e  o  m 

e  t  r  y  . 

7.  Science   or   Corre 

spondence    and 

Science    or    Corre 

spondence     and 

French. 

French. 

1.  Arithmetic. 

Composition. 

F  r  e 

n  c  h  . 

2.                 Draw 

i  n  g  . 

Physical  Exs. 

Arithmetic. 

3.  French. 

Mental  Arith. 

Mensuration. 

4    Algebra. 

Grammar. 

Mensuration 

5.                    Man 

u  a  1 

Train 

i  n  g  . 

6.  Science   or  Corre 

spondence     and 

Science  or  Corres 

pondence  and 

French. 

Grammar. 

7.  Arithmetic. 

Algebra. 

Draw 

i  n  g. 

1.  Arithmetic. 

Business  Tr'ning.' 

Physical  Exs. 

Shorthand. 

2.  French. 

Geography. 

French. 

Arithmetic. 

3.  Geography. 

History. 

Spelling. 

French. 

4.  Arithmetic.               Geography. 

Music. 

Corresp. 

5.  Geometry.                 Physical  Exs. 

Music. 

Algebra. 

6.  Arithmetic.               Music. 

M  e  n  s  u  r 

a  t  i  o  n  . 

7.  Arithmetic.              Music. 

History, 

Poetry. 

168 


SCHOOL  FOR  BOYS  (COMMERCIAL  BIAS). 


1.30                        2.10                          2.50  3.0                          3.30                   4.0 

1.  French. 

History. 

Derivation. 

Poetry. 

2.  Correspondence. 

French. 

Algebra. 

Poetry. 

3.  History. 

Geometry. 

Algebra. 

Poetry. 

4.  Arithmetic. 

Composition. 

History. 

French. 

5.  Arithmetic. 

Algebra. 

Geography. 

Prose. 

6.  History. 

Composition. 

Music. 

Poetry. 

7.  Mensuration. 

Mjnsuralion. 

French. 

1 

Derivation  and 
Composition. 

1.  Drawing. 

Drawing. 

1  Arithmetic. 

Prose. 

2.  History. 

Shorthand. 

1  French. 

Prose. 

3.  Shorthand. 

Composition. 

1  Algebra. 

Derivation. 

4.                      Man 

u  a  1 

Train 

i  n  g  . 

5.  Mensuration. 

Physical  Exercises. 

Correspondence. 

Grammar. 

6.  French. 

Arithmetic. 

1  Physical  Exercises. 

Derivation  and 
Composition. 

7.  Geography. 

French. 

Draw 

i  n  g. 

1.  Algebra. 

Geography. 

Physical  Exercises. 

Shorthand. 

2.  Geometry  to  2.20. 

Algebra. 

1  History. 

French. 

3.  French. 

Shorthand. 

Arithmetic. 

Prose. 

4.  Histoiy. 

Derivation      and 
Composition. 

Mensuration. 

Prose. 

5.  Algebra. 

French. 

History. 

Derivation  and 
Composition. 

6.  Arithmetic. 

Poetry. 

French. 

Geography. 

7.  Geometry. 

Physical  Exercises. 

French. 

Arithmetic. 

1.  Algebra. 

Correspondence . 

Metric  Arithmetic. 

Poetry. 

2.  French. 

Composition. 

1  Algebra. 

Poetry. 

3.  Bookkeeping. 

Physical  Exercises. 

Algebra. 

Poetry. 

4.                   Draw 

i  n  g  . 

Physical  Exercises. 

French. 

5.  Arithmetic. 

French. 

Music. 

Prose. 

6.  History. 

Geography. 

Draw 

i  n  g  . 

7.  Geography. 

Arithmetic. 

French. 

Poetry. 

1.  French. 

Algebra. 

1  Spelling. 

Debate. 

2.  Mensuration  to 

Algebra. 

Spelling. 

Debate. 

2..50. 

1 

3.  Correspondence. 

Arithmetic. 

French. 

Debate. 

4.  Algebra. 

French. 

Spelling. 

Prose. 

6.  Arithmetic. 

Drawing. 

Draw 

i  n  g. 

6.  Algebra. 

French. 

Handwriting. 

Prose. 

7.  Composition. 

French. 

Handwriting. 

Prose. 

169 


170 


IX.— TIME-TABLE  OF  A  COMBINED  COMMERCIAL 


M 

0 

R  N  I  N  G . 

Class 
No. 

Std. 

9.0-9.30 

9.45 

9.30-10.30 

10.30-11.0 

11.10-12.0 

T 

4c. 

Shorthand. 

English. 

French. 

2 

4t. 

Art. 



3 

3c. 

French. 

Shorthand. 

Maths. 

4 

3t. 

Geography. 

History. 

French. 

^ 

5 

2(a). 

Science. 

Singing. 

Maths. 

t3 
1 

6 

2(6). 

{ 

Gardening  (Boys). 
Needlework  (Girls). 

Singing. 

Science. 

7 

1(a). 

French. 

Drill. 

Maths. 

8 

1(6). 

French. 

Drill. 

Maths. 

9 

1(c). 

0 

{ 

Man.  Tmg.  (Boys). 

3 

DQ 

Dom.  Econ.  (Girls) 

1 

4c.       f- 

Art; 

Singing. 

French. 

2 

4i.       <3 

3 

© 

French. 

Singing. 

English. 

3 

3c.      i 

»> 

-13 

Mathematics. 

Shorthand. 

English. 

4 

3z.       0 

5 

00 

Mathematics. 

Singing. 

Science. 

5 

2(a).^ 

H 

tiD 

f 

Gardening  (Boys). 
Needlework  (Girls). 

Drill. 

Maths. 

<D 

6 

2(6). 

o 

English. 

Drill. 

Maths. 

H 

7 

l{a).] 

3 

P5 

{ 

Man.  Trng.  (Boys). 

i 

Dom.  Econ.  (Girls). 

8 

1  (6).  c 

3 

ao 

French. 

History. 

Maths. 

9 

1(c). 
4c.      J 

3             O 

C! 

Science. 

Geography. 

Maths. 

1 

Shorthand. 

English. 

French. 

2 

4t.       < 

:>         n 

m 

Mathematics. 

English. 

Science. 

3 

3c.      .. 

■•            3 

O 

French. 

Singing. 

Maths. 

>> 

a 

4 

3i.      ^ 

o 

{ 

Gardening  (Boys). 
Needlework  (Girls). 

Singing. 

French. 

S 

5 

2  (a).  ^ 

-           .^ 

-d 

{ 

Man.  Trng.  (Boys). 

-§ 

(- 

j3 

Dom.  Econ.  (Girls). 

1 

6 

2(6). 

»               o 

c3 

French. 

English. 

Maths. 

7 

!(«)•• 

CO 

Science. 

Geography. 

Maths. 

8 

1(6). 

w 

CiJD 

Art. 



Maths. 

9 

1(c). 

s 

C! 

French. 

Drill. 

Maths. 

1 

4c.      ^ 

Bookkeeping. 

Drill. 

French. 

2 

4i. 

» 

J«l 

French. 

Drill. 

Maths. 

3 

3c. 

>> 

^4 

English. 

Shorthand. 

Geog. 

^ 

4 

3i.     - 

- 

eS 

History. 

Geography. 

Science. 

"S 

5 

2  (a).  J 

s 

§ 

Art. 

— 

Maths. 

(-1 

6 

2(6) 

s 

Science. 

English. 

Maths. 

.3 

7 

1(a) 

o 

— • 

French. 

History. 

Maths. 

H 

8 

1(6). 

OQ 

c5 

French. 

Geography. 

Maths. 

9 

l(c).^ 
4c.      ' 

OQ 

(3 

{ 

Gardening  (Boys). 
Needlework  (Girls). 

History. 

Maths. 

1 

Science. 

— 

French. 

2 

4i. 

{ 

Man.  Trng.  (Boys). 
Needlework  (Girls). 

History. 

Science. 

3 

3c. 

French. 

Drill. 

Maths. 

>, 

4 

3i. 

Mathematics. 

Drill. 

French. 

13 

5 

2(a). 

French. 

English. 

Maths. 

;^ 

6 

2(6). 

Art. 

— 

Maths. 

P^ 

7 

1(a). 

Mathematics. 

Sin.;ing. 

Maths. 

8 

1(d). 

English. 

Singing. 

Maths. 

9 

1(c). 

French. 

Singing. 

Maths. 

AND  iNDlJStRlAL  SCHOOL  (BOtS  AND  OmLS). 

AFTERNOON. 


1?1 


2.0-3.0 

3.0-3.30 

3.40-4.30 

English.                                          Drill.                       Mathematics. 
Gardening  (B.).     Ndlwk.  (G.).  Drill.                       Geography. 
Art.                                                 Singing.                  English. 
English.                                        Singing.                 Science. 
French.                                         History.                 Mathematics. 

French. 

listory. 

English. 

Science. 

Man.  Tg.  (B.).     Dom.  Ec.  (G.). 

listory. 

j^nglish. 

c 

French. 

Geography. 

English. 

Mathematics. 
Geography. 
French. 
Mathematics. 

Singing. 
Singing. 
3eography. 
French. 

Geography. 
Mathematics. 
Science. 
English. 

French. 

English. 

Geography. 

«3 

Man.  Tg.  (B.).     Dom.  Ec.  (G.). 

— 

— 

bi 

French. 

Drill. 

English. 

Science. 
Art. 

Drill. 

English. 
English. 

Art. 

Mathematics. 

Bookkeeping. 

Manual  Training  (Boys).          \ 

Domestic  Economy  (Girls).     / 

History. 
History. 
History. 

Geography. 

English. 

Arithmetic. 

a 

French. 

Drill. 

Geography. 

0 

0) 
OQ 

to 

< 

French. 

Gardening  (B.).     Ndlwk.  (G.). 

French. 

Science. 

Drill. 

Geography. 
Geography. 
Drill. 

Mathematics. 
English. 
English. 
English. 

Mathematics. 

Man.  Tg.  (B.).     Dom.  Eo.  (G.). 

Geography. 

Art. 

English. 

English. 

French. 

Science. 

History. 

History. 

History. 
History. 
Singing. 
Singing. 

Geography. 

Science. 

English. 
(Jeography. 
English. 
English. 

French. 

Singing. 

English. 

Mathematics. 

English. 

English. 

French. 

History. 

English. 

Geography,  30.     English,  30. 

English. 

Science. 

(Joography. 

Art. 

Gardening  (B.).     Ndlwk.  (G.) 

Mathematics. 

Drill. 
Drill. 
Singing. 
Singing. 

History. 
History. 

Art. 

Mathematics. 

Geography. 

Sci.  (B.).  Nk.(G.). 

G(>o<^raj)hy. 

(ieography. 

Geography. 

172 


THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 
DIGEST  OF  PKECEDING  TIME-TABLE. 


Common 

to  Both 

Commercial. 

Industrial. 

Sides* 

4 

^ 

1 

2 

3 

4 

2         3 

4 

Scripture 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

English  : 

Composition  (written )'» 

(oral)        [.. 
Grammar,  etc.              J 

200 

290 

190 

200 

240 

170 

180 

Arithmetic    . . 

260 

220 

210 

230 

220 

230 

202 

History 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

90 

90 

Geography    . . 

110 

150 

170 

150 

110 

90 

110 

Science 

120 

120 

100 

(JO 

G.  110 
B.  160 

150 

G.  140 
B.200 

Handicraft    . . 

140 

140 

— 

— 

180 

140 

G.  140 
B.200 

Drawing 

90 

120 

160 

120 

120 

140 

140 

Singing          

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

French           

240 

240 

240 

250 

180 

180 

G.  120 
B.    60 

Shorthand  and  Bookkeeping 

— 

— 

150 

180 

— 

— 

— 

Physical  Exercises    . . 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Correspondence,    Gardening, 

or  Needlework 

60 

60 

— 

— 

60 

90 

*~~ 

1.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Fourth  Year  of  the  Com- 
mercial Course  has  no  manual  training,  no  gardening,  and 
the  girls  no  needlework. 

2.  The  Science  Course  includes  physics,  chemistry,  elec- 
tricity, and  magnetism  (only  a  small  amount  of  the  latter), 
and  lectures  on  general  scientific  topics  such  as  evolution, 
aviation,  the  moon,  the  solar  system. 

3.  English  receives  comparatively  short  shrift  because  so 
many  other  matters  have  to  be  crowded  in.^  English 
literature  in  particular  has  had  small  attention  paid  to  it. 
It  is  proposed  to  remedy  this  by  giving  less  time  to  less 
important  subjects. 

^  The  head-master  who  was  kind  enough  to  supply  me  with  this 
time-table  is  not  responsible  for  it,  but  has  inherited  it  from  a  pre- 
decessor ;  at  the  present  time  he  is  engaged  in  modifying  it  on  lines 
indicated  in  the  above  notes. 


THE  ELEMENTAEY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  173 

4.  History  suffers,  too,  in  the  same  way  and  from  the 
same  reason.  More  time  is  to  be  given  to  this  subject ;  and 
a  new  syllabus  has  been  drawn  up  by  a  specialist  teacher. 
The  completed  arrangements  met  almost  immediately  a 
blow  in  the  loss  of  the  specialist  teacher  by  promotion. 

5.  It  is  apparently  impossible  in  a  Central  School  where 
the  sexes  are  mixed  to  make  the  difference  between  indus- 
trial and  commercial  sides  so  marked  as  in  schools  where 
boys  and  girls  are  in  separate  departments.  Moreover, 
it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  distinction  should  be 
rigidly  kept.  At  one  time  this  school  was  wholly  indus- 
trial, yet  many  past  pupils  are  now  in  commerce. 

6.  Classes  have  to  be  partially  combined  for  certain  sub- 
jects ;  for  instance,  in  drill  the  boys  of  parallel  sections 
have  to  come  together  and  the  girls  at  another  time,  the 
one  class  taking  (on  the  new  time-table)  history  while  the 
other  takes  di'ill. 

7.  Handicraft  presents  another  difficulty,  having  to  in- 
clude the  work  of  girls  as  well  as  of  boys.  The  boys  can 
only  get  the  time  for  handicraft  which  the  girls  get  for 
cookery  and  housewifery.  A  few  of  the  best  boys  get 
extra  time  for  this  subject;  this  does  not  appear  on  the 
time-table,  and  these  boys  have  to  miss  other  work.  The 
head-master  of  this  school  would  like  to  see  a  centre 
attached  to  the  school  for  the  girls  as  well  as  for  the  boys, 
so  as  to  ensure  adequate  correlation  between  the  various 
branches,  and  supervision,  especially  of  advanced  domestic 
courses. 

8.  French  appears  in  the  syllabus  for  the  "  industrials." 
This  is  unusual,  and  is  probably  the  result  of  the  accidental 
presence  on  the  staff  of  several  specialists  in  the  language. 
Owing  to  the  pressure  of  other  subjects,  the  time  was 
limited  in  the  third  and  fourth  year  to  three  hours  weekly. 
The  present  head-master  is  modifying  this  arrangement  in 
what  seems  a  very  wise  manner.     This  year  only  the  best 


174 


THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


"  industrials  "  of  tlie  two  last  years  will  take  the  subject ; 
that  will  probably  mean  about  three-quarters  of  the  com- 
mercial and  about  one-quarter  of  the  industrial  pupils.  By 
working  the  two  sides  together  and  giving  extra  "handi- 
craft "  to  the  "  non-French  "  pupils,  advantage  will  accrue 
to  both  subjects.  It  is  probable  that  under  a  still  later 
reconstruction  of  the  time-table  the  whole  of  the  ' '  indus- 
trials ' '  will  drop  French  and  devote  the  time  saved  to 
manual  work. 


X.— ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TIME-TABLE  OF  A  COMBINED 
COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRL^L  CENTRAL  SCHOOL 
FOR  BOYS.* 


Cotiimercial. 

Industrial. 

Subjects. 

4th. 

3rd. 

2nd. 

1st. 

4th. 

3rd. 

2nd. 

1st. 

Scripture 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

English 

340 

330 

275 

SCO 

300 

430 

380 

420 

Mathematics    . . 

170 

180 

390 

2fc0 

340 

310 

310 

310 

History 

140 

130 

100 

110 

140 

110 

110 

SO 

Geography 

140 

150 

120 

110 

140 

110 

130 

90 

Science 

70 

10 

70 

70 

210 

140 

140 

140 

Handicraft 

— 

■ — 

— 

— 

140 

140 

MO 

140 

Drawing 

70 

70 

70 

70 

70 

70 

70 

70 

Singing 

— 

— 

60 

70 

— 

— 

GO 

70 

French  . . 

240 

240 

255 

290 

— 

■ — 

— ■ 

— 

Shorthand 

90 

CO 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Business  Routine 

80 

80 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total 

1,490 

1,490 

1,490 

1,540 

1,490 

1,460 

1,490 

1,480 

The  time-table  of  the  small  rural  school  presents  difiQ- 
culties  of  a  kind  quite  different  from  those  of  the  large 
urban  school.  In  the  first  place,  the  clas.sification  of  the 
scholars  will  have  to  be  rather  of  the  rough-and-ready  type  ; 
the  pupils  of  all  classes  will  show^  wide  differences  of  know- 

*  Students  are  inv'ted  to  employ  their  critical  powers  upon  the  above, 
comparing  and  contrasting,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  ma<J,q  ys^  <^^ 
ia  this  book,  the  periods  allotted  to  the  different  subjects. 


THE  ELEMENTAEY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES  175 

ledge  and  capacity.  In  the  second  place,  the  smallness  of 
the  classes  will  not  allow  of  a  separate  teacher  for  each  ; 
one  teacher  will  have  to  instruct  two  or  even  more  groups 
or  "standards"  of  scholars.  In  addition,  the  present 
administration  and  organisation  of  education  in  the 
country  generally  has  not  been  efficient  enough  to  always 
provide  thoroughly  efficient  teachers  or  suitably  built  and 
furnished  buildings. 

The  teachers  themselves  use  a  nomenclature  to  describe 
their  internal  organisation  which  is  confusing.  The  term 
"class"  has  with  them  a  variety  of  meanings,  sometimes 
signifying  the  distinction  between  the  upper,  middle,  and 
lower  part  of  the  school,  sometimes  indicating  a  standard, 
and  sometimes  the  group  of  children  engaged  in  doing 
similar  work  or  receiving  instruction  at  the  same  time  from 
one  teacher.  It  will  conduce  to  clearness  of  thought  if 
one  terminology  is  adhered  to.  Small  schools  consisting 
of  from  50  to  80  or  100  pupils  can  be  most  easily  divided 
into  Senior,  Junior,  and  Infant  Departments,  the  Senior 
consisting  of  the  four  top  standards  (IV.,  V.,  VI.,  and 
VII.),  the  Junior  of  Standards  I.,  II.,  and  III.,  and  the 
Infant  Department  of  those  below  the  first  standard. 
Sometimes  the  Senior  Department  may  include  Standard 
III.,  and  sometimes,  again,  the  Infant  School  may  include 
Standard  I.  In  such  schools  the  staff  often  consists  of 
three  persons — the  head  master  or  mistress,  an  assistant 
teacher,  and  a  supplementary  teacher,  the  latter  usually 
a  young  person  who  has  received  little  or  no  training  in 
the  art  of  teaching.  Occasionally  two  "  supplementaries  " 
assist  a  head-teacher.  The  assistant  may  be  untrained 
and  even  uncertificated,  and  it  is  in  no  way  to  deprecate 
such  teachers,  who  often  do  good  work  under  this  handi- 
cap, to  assert  that  the  position  is  unfortunate  and  disas- 
trous for  education.  The  head-teacher  usually  teaches 
the  Senior,  the  supplementary  the  Middle,  and  the 
assistant   teacher  the  Infant   Department,   this   arrange- 


176  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

ment  allowing  more  adequate  supervision  of  the  weakest 
member  of  the  staff  by  the  head-teacher.  The  Senior 
Department  is  classified  differently  for  various  branches  of 
instruction.  For  example,  in  arithmetic  there  may  be 
four  distinct  classes,  all  working  at  different  stages:  thus 
the  class  here  would  correspond  with  what  we  understand 
as  the  standard.  For  reading  and  composition  and  some 
other  subjects  the  children  of  the  four  standards  might  be 
classified  to  form  two  classes,  the  teacher  giving  half  his 
time  to  one  and  half  to  another,  the  one  reading  silently 
while  the  other  has  practice  in  reading  aloud  ;  or  one  writ- 
ing composition  while  the  other  is  receiving  instruction  in 
the  art  of  writing  English. 

In  such  circumstances  it  is  obvious  that  each  pupil  must 
receive  less  direct  teaching  than  the  pupil  of  a  standard 
which  has  a  teacher  with  no  other  class  to  attend  to,  as 
in  the  larger  schools.  The  disadvantages  of  this  are 
numerous,  but  in  the  hands  of  a  capable  teacher  the  pupils 
often  develop  habits  of  self-reliance  and  independent  study 
which  are  most  valuable  in  their  future  life. 

Thus  the  head-teacher  of  the  small  rural  school  has  a 
task  in  organising  the  work  and  framing  the  time-table 
unknown  to  his  colleague  at  the  head  of  a  large  school, 
fully  staffed  by  trained  men  and  women.  The  ability, 
untiring  energy,  and  patience  needed  by  the  rural  head- 
teacher  can  scarcely  be  realised,  and  the  degree  of  success 
attained  by  village  schools  bears  witness  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  men  and  women  who  conduct  them.  None  the 
less,  the  State  should  see  to  it  that  the  conditions  of  work 
undergo  a  speedy  amelioration. 

The  time-table  on  pp.  178  and  179  is  that  of  a  rural 
school  consisting  of  13  boys,  24  girls,  and  21  infants.  The 
Senior  School,  under  the  direct  instruction  of  the  head- 
master, consists  of  Standards  III.,  IV.,  V.,  and  YT., 
and  for  certain  subjects  is  arranged  in  two  classes,  com- 
posed as  to  Class  1  of  Standards  IV.  (the  more  advanced 


THEELEMENTAEY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES   177 

pupils),  v.,  and  VI.,  and  as  to  Class  2  of  Standard  III. 
and  the  backward  pupils  of  Standard  IV.  The  Middle 
School  includes  Standards  I.  and  II.,  and  is  taught  by  a 
supplementary  teacher.  All  the  infants  are  supervised  by 
an  uncertificated  assistant  mistress. 

To  work  such  a  time-table  as  this  it  is  clearly  neces- 
sary to  group  two,  and  sometimes  three,  standards  into 
one  class  for  oral  subjects,  such  as  history,  geography, 
Nature-study,  and  composition.  In  order  that  all  the 
pupils  of  such  a  class  may  deal  with  fresh  subject-matter 
each  year — that  is,  that  in  every  case  the  course  should  be 
progressive — the  year's  work  is  made  part  of  a  two  or 
three  years'  syllabus.  For  instance,  the  geography 
scheme  for  Standards  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.  might  be  as 
follows  : 

First  Year. — Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  region. 
Second  Year. — Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  excluding 

British  possessions  and  the  Mediterranean  regions 

of  Asia  and  Africa. 
Third  Year. — The  British  Empire. 

The  history  and  Nature-study  syllabuses  would  be  similarly 
arranged . 

Where  the  Senior  School  is  divided  into  two  classes  for 
reading,  various  devices  are  employed  for  giving  the  pupils 
full  occupation  and  proper  instruction.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  such  classes  are  bound  to  be  small,  and 
that  when  the  teacher  gives  half  a  lesson  period  to  one 
and  half  to  another,  he  may  be  able  to  do  as  much  with 
them  in  the  shorter  time  as  the  teacher  of  a  class  of  forty 
or  fifty  pupils  who  has  the  whole  lesson  period  at  his  dis- 
posal. The  most  common  and  natural  method  of  dealing 
with  the  conditions  is  to  set  one  class  definite  parts  of  the 
reader  for  silent  reading,  while  viva  voce  reading  is  taken 
with  the  other,  and  then  reversing  procedure. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  time-table  that  reading  is  also 

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180  THE  CUREICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

taken  in  combination  with  composition.  Thus  Standard 
III.  is  writing,  while  two  other  classes,  one  composed  of 
Standards  IV.  and  V.  and  the  other  of  Standard  VI.,  are 
having  a  reading  lesson.  The  composition  exercise  is 
carried  out  by  the  pupils  with  little  or  no  help.  Mean- 
while, for  the  first  twenty  minutes,  Standards  IV.  and  V. 
are  reading  aloud  individually  and  Standard  VI.  is  read- 
ing silently,  using  dictionaries  and  making  notes  of  any 
difficult  words.  In  the  last  ten  minutes  IV.  and  V.  read 
silently  and  use  their  dictionaries,  while  VI.  are  tested  as 
to  their  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  and  read  aloud. 
In  the  next  lesson  Standards  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.  write 
composition,  while  Standard  III.,  which  has  not  yet  over- 
come the  technical  difficulties  of  reading,  have  a  full  half- 
hour  of  instruction  in  this  subject.  Definite  chapters  or 
parts  of  chapters  are  thus  read  and  prepared  silently.  If 
the  work  is  finished  before  time,  the  pupil  can  read  the 
library  book  kept  under  his  desk. 

The  lesson  dii'ected  to  class  correction  of  composition  is 
combined  with  dictation,  and  here,  again,  the  work  of 
correction  is  necessarily  undertaken  by  the  pupils  more 
independently  than  is  done  in  larger  schools.  By  means 
of  a  number  of  symbols  and  letters,  the  type  of  mistake  is 
indicated  in  the  margin  of  the  book,  and  each  pupil  cor- 
rects his  own  errors  while  the  other  class  is  doing  the 
dictation  exercise. 

In  this  way  the  various  combinations,  such  as  reading 
and  geography,  reading  and  recitation,  are  carried  through 
in  spite  of  the  apparent  difficulties. 

The  arithmetic  lesson  merits  a  closer  examination.  At 
first  sight  it  would  seem  almost  impossible  for  one  teacher 
to  carry  on  four  different  arithmetic  lessons  at  the  same 
time,  and,  indeed,  only  by  the  most  skilful  organisation 
can  it  be  done.  The  general  plan  governing  all  the  sub- 
jects is  first  to  draw  up  a  yearly  scheme  of  work,  then  to- 


THE  ELEMENTAEY  SCHOOL— TIME-TABLES   181 

divide  it  into  terminal  sections,  and  finally  subdivide  each 
term's  syllabus  into  weekly  schemes,  generally  arranged 
at  each  week-end  in  readiness  for  the  work  of  the  follow- 
ing week.  By  this  means  each  teacher  knows  exactly 
what  piece  of  work  belongs  to  the  day  and  to  the  par- 
ticular lesson,  and  no  time  or  mental  energy  is  wasted  at 
the  moment  of  beginning  a  lesson. 

The  arithmetic  work,  in  accordance  with  this  plan,  is 
laid  out  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  possible  to  supervise 
four  classes  at  the  same  time.  A  week's  work  is  here  ap- 
pended, taken  from  a  well-organised  rural  school  of  fifty- 
nine  pupils.  It  will  be  seen  that  actual  instruction 
alternates  for  the  different  classes  : 

Outlines  of  Arithmetic  for  Week 

Monday. 

Standard  III. — Practical  Work  (I,  i,  J  by  paper  folding). 
Additional  and  Subtraction  of  ^d.,  |d.,  |d. 

Standard  /F.— L.C.M.  Exercises  34  A  and  B.  Find 
L.C.M.  of  9,  15,  25. 

Standard  V. — Fractional  Values.  Exercise  37B.  Ex- 
press £2  3s.  7Jd.  as  decimal  of  £5. 

Standard    VI. — Accuracy    Test.     Exercise    44,    i.     Class 
Lesson  on  Proportional  Division. 
Mental  based  on  work  set. 

Tuesday. 

Standard  7//.— Problems  (J,  J,  I)— e.g.,  |  of  £2  10s.  ;  i  of 
£3  4s. ;  I  of  £1  6s.  8d. 

Standard  IV. — Class  Lesson.  Blackboard  work  by 
scholars  (H.C.F.  and  L.C.M.). 

Standard  V. — Fractional  Values.  Exercise  37C.  Ex- 
press ^  of  £1  as  fraction  of  1  J-  of  £3}. 

Standard  VI. — Accuracy  Test.     Exercise  44,  2, 


182  THE  CUEKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

Wednesday. 

Standard  III. — Problems  (J,  |,  i).  Example  :  How 
many  hom^s  in  J  day?  How  many  in  f  day,  f  day, 
i  day? 

Standard  /F.— Examples  in  L.C.M.  Exercise  340. 
Exercise  34  (a),  1. 

Standard  V. — Class  Lesson.  Vulgar  and  Decimal  Frac- 
tions. 

Standard  VI. — Accuracy  Test.     Exercise  44,  3. 
Mental  for  all  classes  based  on  work  set. 

Thursday. 

Standard  III. — Problems.  Exercise  30C.  Class  Lesson 
(:jd.,  od.,  :|d.).     Multiplication  and  Division. 

Standard  /F.— Problems  in  H.C.F.  and  L.C.M.  worked 
on  blackboard  by  scholars. 

Standard   V. — Problems  (Fractions).     Exercise  37D. 

Standard  VI. — Problems  in  Proportional  Divisional  Divi- 
sion.    Exercise  45 A, 

Friday. 

Standard  III. — Problems.  Four  rules  in  £  s.  d.  Exer- 
cise 31  A. 

Standard  /F.— Problems  in  H.C.F.  and  L.C.M.  Exer- 
cise 35  A  and  B. 

Standard  V. — Class  Lesson.  Blackboard  work  by 
Scholars  (Vulgar  and  Decimal  Fractions). 

Standard    VI. — Accuracy   Test.     Exercise   44,   4.     Class 
Lesson  in  Proportional  Division. 
Mental  work  based  on  v/ork  set  for  each  class. 

This  scheme  was  drawn  up  after  school  on  Friday, 
November  23,  and  carried  out,  exactly  as  drawn  up.  during 
the  week  endino-  November  30, 1917. 


CHAPTER  X 

OTHER  ELEMENTS  OF  SCHOOL  ORGANISATION 

In  the  large  Urban  Elementary  Schools  of  England  the 
head-teacher  is  usually  at  the  head  of  a  department ;  in 
Germany  and  America  he  generally  governs  the  whole 
school.  The  v/ider  his  sphere  of  authority,  the  smaller  his 
personal  influence  tends  to  become ;  the  more  he  becomes 
an  official,  the  more  he  ceases  to  be  a  teacher.  In  French 
Secondary  Schools  the  head-master,  or  proviseur,  is  little 
more  than  business  manager.  In  England  tradition  and 
educational  aims  have  given  rise  to  a  conception  of  the  head 
of  the  school  which  is  almost  in  complete  opposition  to 
Continental  and  American  ideas.  We  regard  the  personal 
influence  of  the  head-master  as  vital  to  the  welfare  of  the 
school ;  some  schools  even  limit  the  number  of  pupils  for 
this  reason.  In  the  case  of  large  Secondary  Schools,  efforts 
have  been  made  to  retain  the  element  of  personal  influence 
by  establishing  School  Houses,  with  miniature  head- 
masters at  the  head  of  each.  The  older  the  pupil,  the 
greater  the  value  we  attach  to  the  influence  upon  him  of  the 
person  wielding  the  greatest  influence  in  the  school.  Even 
the  City  Elementary  School  we  do  not  consider  too  large, 
or  its  pupils  too  young,  to  make  this  contact  between  the 
pupils  and  the  head-master  impossible  or  imnecessary.  The 
frequent  visits  of  the  head-master  to  class-rooms  are  a 
special  feature  of  English  Elementary  Schools.  Some  of 
the  German  Primary  Schools  are  so  large  that  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  for  the  principal  to  know  what  goes  on 
in  the  class-rooms,  and  altogether  beyond  his  power  to  know 

183 


184  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

any  considerable  number  of  pupils  at  all  intimately  or  to 
exert  a  directly  personal  influence. 

A  peculiar  difference  in  the  relation  between  head  and 
assistant  masters  exists  between  the  Elementary  and  the 
Secondary  Schools  of  our  own  country.  The  head-teacher  of 
an  Elementary  School  usually  supervises  his  teachers  much 
more,  and  yet  has  less  power  over  them,  than  the  head  of  a 
Secondary  School.  The  former  can  secure  a  certain  degree 
of  efficiency  from  incapable  or  lazy  teachers  by  constant 
personal  supervision ;  the  latter  can  achieve  the  same  end 
by  the  menace  of  dismissal.  The  former,  especially  if  a 
person  with  ideas,  interferes  much  more  in  the  methods  of 
teaching  used  by  his  staff  than  the  latter,  who  seldom 
worries  how  the  subject-matter  is  being  taught.  Thus,  in 
the  Elementary  School  we  frequently  find  uniform  methods 
adopted  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  school ;  in  the 
Secondary  School  uniformity  is  frequently  absent.  This  is 
contrary  to  what  we  might  expect,  for  the  teachers  of  the 
Elementary  School  are  often  thoroughly  trained  men  and 
women,  while  numbers  of  Secondary  School  teachers  work 
by  the  light  of  Nature.  The  Elementary  head-teacher 
lives  much  more  among  his  class-teachers — to  such  a 
degree,  indeed,  that  his  temperament  and  moods  are  felt 
by  them  as  constant  elements  of  the  environment,  elements 
which  largely  contribute  to  make  their  lot  pleasant  or 
unpleasant. 

The  amount  of  actual  supervision  of  the  teaching  varies 
considerably.  In  some  Elementary  Schools  the  head- 
teacher  rarely  visits  the  class-room  ;  in  others  he  is  in  and 
out  very  frequently,  rarely  leaving  the  teacher  to  his  own 
devices  for  long.  These  two  extremes  are  both  bad,  in  that 
they  do  not  secure  the  best  work,  and  the' best  course  is,  as 
nearly  always  is  the  case,  the  middle  one.  Every  body  of 
co-operative  workers  needs  supervision,  if  for  no  other 
reason  than  that  co-ordination  may  be  secured ;  but  no 


OTHEE  ELEMENTS  OF  OEGANISATION    185 

workman  can  do  his  best  when  subjected  to  constant  inter- 
ference. 

There  is  Httle  doubt  that  the  government  of  the  school 
by  the  head-teacher  should  be  of  a  democratic  and  not  of  an 
autocratic  type.  Co-operation  should  be  the  keynote. 
The  ten  or  twelve  periods  a  week  of  teaching  which  every 
elementary  head-teacher  should  reserve  to  himself  may 
help  to  promote  the  idea  of  co-operation  and  diminish  that 
of  mere  direction.  Some  devote  these  hours  of  teaching  to 
one  class,  others  to  one  subject.  If  the  former  plan  is 
pursued,  the  head-teacher's  influence  is  concentrated  with 
good  effect,  especially  if  he  teaches  the  highest  class  of  the 
school.  If  the  latter  plan  is  followed,  his  influence  is  felt 
throughout  the  school,  and  his  activity,  when  efficient, 
serves  as  an  example  to  both  teachers  and  scholars. 

This  example  will  be  particularly  useful  to  the  young 
teacher  who  has  just  left  the  Training  College,  and  who 
therefore  has  had,  at  most,  about  a  year  of  teaching  experi- 
ence. Occasionally  the  head-teacher  acts  as  if  this  young 
person  has  had  the  experience  which  twenty  or  more  years 
ago  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  pupil-teacher.  The  case  is  very 
different,  however.  The  year  of  the  student  teachership  is 
quite  insufficient  to  form  a  teacher  out  of  the  boy  or  girl  of 
seventeen,  and  the  six  weeks  of  practice  possible  in  the 
Training  College  are  ludicrously  inadequate  for  carrying 
the  process  of  development  far.  Moreover,  many  of  those 
entering  the  schools  from  the  Training  Colleges  have  not 
been  student  teachers,  and  hence  have  had  only  twelve 
weeks'  experience  of  teaching.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  head-teacher's  duty  is  clear.  He  has  to  help,  advise, 
and  encourage,  and,  in  fact,  train  these  young  teachers. 
They  have  ideals  and  some  theoretical  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  teaching,  but  little  first-hand  acquaintance 
with  the  art.  The  treatment  of  these  neophytes  will  make 
or  mar  their  career,  and  incidentally   contribute  to  or 


186  THE  CUEKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

diminish  the  efficiency  of  the  school ,  The  same  training  by 
the  head-master  is  needed  in  the  case  of  student  teachers 
who  are  receiving  their  first  training  in  the  Elementary 
School. 

Under  present  conditions  the  head-teacher  has  to  frame 
the  curriculum  for  the  whole  school.  If  he  is  well  advised 
he  will  secure  the  collaboration  of  the  whole  of  his  staff  in 
this  work.  He  has  also  to  see  that  each  teacher  plans  a 
scheme  of  work  for  that  part  of  the  curriculum  allotted  to 
him,  showing  the  parts  of  the  syllabus  and  the  number  of 
periods  to  be  devoted  to  them.  He  must  also  keep  himself 
ail  courant  with  regard  to  the  work  actually  completed,  so 
that  he  may  be  in  a  position  to  test  progress  and  to  suggest 
necessary  changes.  The  written  record  of  completed  work 
kept  by  every  class  teacher  will  give  this  knowledge. 

Classification  of  the  pupils  will  demand  the  head- 
teacher's  close  attention.  When  a  new  pupil  is  received 
into  the  school  it  is  necessary  to  discover  for  what  class  his 
attainments  and  abilities  most  nearly  fit  him.  To  some 
extent  it  is  the  same  kind  of  "  fit  "  which  the  ready-made 
suit  provides,  but  some  knowledge  and  skill  are  necessary 
to  achieve  even  this  rough-and-ready  adaptation.  The  suit 
finally  takes  something  of  the  wearer's  shape,  but  the  child 
has  to  shape  himself  to  the  class,  and  the  result  is  often  a 
distortion.  His  development  may  be  retarded  and  even 
arrested  in  many  directions  if  the  business  of  classifying 
has  been  bungled.  It  is  of  little  use  to  ascertain  what  class 
or  standard  he  was  in  in  his  last  school,  or  what  is  his  age. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  test  him  in  a  few  fundamental 
matters,  especially  in  those  where  lack  of  knowledge  would, 
if  he  is  not  correctly  placed  in  the  school,  necessitate  indi- 
vidual teaching.  Arithmetic  is  usually  chosen  as  the  test, 
not  because  it  is  more  important  than  any  other  funda- 
mental, but  because  no  progress  would  be  possible  to  a  child 
backward  in  the  subject  without  individual  teaching.     In 


OTHER  ELEMENTS  OF  ORGANISATION    187 

the  lowest  classes  of  the  school  this  is  almost  equally  true 
with  regard  to  the  power  to  read.  In  most  of  the  other 
branches  of  knowledge  ignorance  is  no  such  bar  to  progress. 
Hence  the  task  of  classification  is  by  no  means  difficult .  No 
doubt  cases  arise  which  require  special  treatment,  as,  for 
example,  when  a  very  bright  child  shows  that  he  is  behind 
in  arithmetic  owing,  perhaps,  to  prolonged  absence  from 
school,  or  to  his  last  school  having  a  very  different  syllabus. 
In  such  a  case  a  very  little  intensive  teaching  may  enable 
the  pupil  to  find  his  proper  level  in  the  school. 

It  is  permissible  to  place  a  pupil  in  one  class  for  one  sub- 
ject and  in  another  for  others— in  other  words,  to  reclassify 
for  special  subjects.  The  Board  of  Education  confers  full 
freedom  of  reclassification,  but  accompanies  the  permission 
with  words  of  advice.  If  the  head-teacher  makes  extensive 
use  of  his  freedom  it  will  be  necessary  to  frame  a  time-table 
in  which  the  same  subject  is  taken  at  the  same  time 
throughout  the  school.  One  evil  result  of  this  plan  is  that 
it  becomes  impossible  to  make  use  of  the  special  talents  of 
members  of  the  staff.  Thus  he  will  compromise  and  seek 
as  far  as  possible  to  adjust  the  two  opposing  tendencies. 

Where  a  pupil  shows  special  capacity  or  unusual  back- 
wardness he  will  be  placed  for  that  subject  in  a  class  suited 
to  him,  returning  to  his  own  class  for  all  other  subjects.  It 
will  be  conceded,  however,  that  in  many  instances  oppor- 
tunities for  developing  a  special  capacity  and  even  for  deal- 
ing with  backwardness  in  one  particular  direction  can  often 
be  found  in  the  class  to  which  such  a  pupil  belongs.  It  is 
evidently  undesirable  to  complicate  school  organisation  by 
any  work  but  quite  necessary  changes  of  this  kind.  The 
sectional  work  which  is  coming  into  prominence  will  do 
much  to  render  reclassification  superfluous  and  will  be  pro- 
ductive of  nothing  but  good  so  long  as  its  employment  as  a 
method  of  teaching  is  not  pushed  to  the  point  of  increasing 
the  teacher's  burden. 


188  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

An  excellent  plan  has  been  adopted  in  many  schools  to 
meet  the  case  of  those  pupils  who  consistently  show  lesS' 
than  average  mental  power,  whose  ability  to  gain  informa- 
tion from  books  is  small,  and  who  therefore  require  quite 
different  treatment  from  the  average  child.  The  head- 
teacher,  partly  from  his  own  observation  and  partly  fromi 
reports  by  the  class  teachers,  discovers  these  children  and 
places  them  in  remove  classes.  All  those  found  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  school  are  placed  in  one,  and  those  in  the 
upper  part  in  another  class ;  some  large  schools  have  been 
able  to  aiTange  for  three  such  groups.  These  children 
are  carefully  watched,  and  where  the  more  concrete  teach- 
ing is  effective,  the  pupil  is  removed  and  put  in  an  ordinary 
class  suited  to  his  development.  The  primary  side  of  the 
"  Mannheim  system,"  in  which  the  school  consists  of  three 
types  of  classes — the  normal,  the  backward,  and  the 
mentally  deficient — is  an  extension  of  this  idea.  Entering 
the  school  at  the  age  of  six,  the  pupils  spend  the  first  school 
year  under  the  charge  of  one  teacher,  who  classifies  them 
into  normal  and  backward.  At  the  end  of  a  year  the 
former  pass  into  the  next  higher  class,  proceeding  ordinarily 
through  the  eight  standards  at  the  rate  of  one  per  j^ear ; 
after  reaching  the  fourth  standard,  the  best  of  them  are 
drafted  into  the  Secondary  Schools.  The  latter  spend  an- 
other year  in  the  same  class,  and  if  after  this  time  they  still 
give  evidence  of  very  slow  development,  they  are  placed  in 
the  department  consisting  of  six  graded  classes  of  backward 
children.  A  further  sifting  discovers  those  who  are  really 
mentally  deficient,  and  these  are  removed  to  a  department 
consisting  of  four  classes.  Scholars  who  are  cases  of  merely 
late  development  and  who  finally  make  good  are  regularly 
retransf erred  to  the  department  for  normals. 

Quite  as  important  as  the  classifying  of  the  pupils  is  the 
classifying  of  the  members  of  the  staff.  Teachers  exhibit 
just  as  many  divergencies  of  character,  ability,  and  taste 


] 


OTHEB  ELEMENTS  OF  ORGANISATION   189 

as  other  people,  so  that  there  is  at  least  as  much  need  to 
see  that  they  are  suited  to  their  particular  spheres  of  work 
as  there  is  in  the  world  of  business  and  industry.  Some 
find  then-  greatest  opportunity  in  the  lowest,  others  in  the 
middle,  and  others  in  the  top  classes  of  the  school.  There 
is  no  question  of  rank  or  status  involved.  In  the  upper 
departments  of  the  Elementary  School  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  certain  teachers  are  better  adapted  to  deal 
with  children  of  from  seven  to  nine  or  ten,  and  others  with 
those  of  from  ten  to  fom'teen  years  of  age.  As,  however, 
no  staff  will  exactly  resemble  any  other,  the  sound  judg- 
ment of  the  head-teacher  will  always  be  needed  for  allocat- 
ing individuals  to  their  proper  posts. 

The  question  is  complicated  by  the  desirability  of  making 
the  best  use  of  special  gifts  or  special  knowledge  of  mem- 
bers of  the  staff.  One  may  be  gifted  in  mathematics  or 
history,  another  in  art  or  handwork ;  one  may  be  musical 
and  possess  the  power  of  conducting  large  combined  classes 
for  choral  work,  another  may  be  particularly  interested  in 
physical  training.  Not  every  subject  requires  a  specialist, 
even  in  the  top  classes  of  the  school ,  nor  is  it  good  for  chil- 
dren to  have  very  many  teachers ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary, 
best  for  them  to  keep  the  same  teacher  for  most  subjects, 
and  in  a  mental  world,  which  is  characterised  by  instability 
and  flux,  to  have  a  permanent  personality  around  which 
their  ideas  may  circle  and  develop  steadfast  associations. 
Moreover,  it  is  good  for  them  that  one  person  should  know 
them  well ;  training  of  character  can  make  little  or  no  pro- 
gress when  it  is  left  in  the  hands  of  what  are  really  "  visit- 
ing teachers" — teachers  unfamiliar  with  the  children 
through  spending  so  little  time  in  their  company.  In  the 
ordinary  Elementary  School  it  is  therefore  better  that  one, 
the  class  teacher,  should  take  the  bulk  of  the  work  with  the 
same  class,  but  that  special  gifts  in  singing  or  drawing  and 
English    literature    should    be    utilized    by    allowing    the 


190  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

specialist  to  teach  his  subject  in  several  classes.  Speaking 
generally,  this  procedure  should  be  adopted  only  in  the  case 
of  art  subjects — that  is,  in  subjects  where  no  amount  of 
appHcation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  can  compensate  for 
the  lack  of  a  certain  kind  of  imagination  or  power  of  artistic 
expression,  whether  manual  or  oral.  Where  such  defi- 
ciencies occur,  and  no  organisation  of  the  kind  suggested  is 
present,  very  great  harm  to  many  children  may  result. 
The  tiny  spark  of  appreciation  and  of  artistic  expression 
may  be  quenched,  and  the  higher  pleasures  which  make 
life  worth  living  for  ever  missed. 

Thus  we  see  limits  set  to  specialising  by  teachers  in  the 
Elementary  School,  and  the  head-teacher  has  to  distribute 
his  staff  in  the  best  possible  way  within  these  limits.  On 
the  whole,  the  plan  which  appears  to  harmonise  best  with 
the  many  facts  involved  is  the  following.  The  teacher  best 
suited  to  the  lower  classes  might  begin  with  Standard  I. 
and  carry  his  class  forward  year  by  year  until  they  reach 
Standard  III.  or  IV.  ;  then  he  might  begin  again  with  a 
new  set  of  children  in  Standard  I.  A  similar  procedure 
might  be  adopted  with  the  teacher  most  suited  to  the  older 
children.  It  is  almost  invariably  advisable  to  place  the 
young  teacher  who  enters  the  school  from  the  Training 
College  with  the  lowest  class  and  allow  him  to  progress  up 
the  school.  In  this  way  he  is  less  severely  taxed  at  the 
beginning  of  his  career,  and  the  head-teacher  has  the  best 
opportunity  of  discovering  his  special  gifts  and  deficiencies. 
Occasionally  in  the  lower,  and  generally  in  the  upper 
classes,  two  or  perhaps  three  subjects  might  be  placed  in 
the  hands  of  specialists.  The  special  courses  follov^^ed  by 
Training  College  students  in  certain  selected  branches  of 
study  render  this  possible  and  even  imperative. 

Many  schools  are  at  the  present  time,  and  will  be  to  a 
growing  extent  in  the  immediate  future,  faced  by  another 
problem  closely  connected  with  that  just  handled.     The 


OTHER  ELEMENTS  OF  ORGANISATION    191 

steadily  diminishing  number  of  men  teachers  has  necessi- 
tated the  employment  of  women  teachers  in  many  boys' 
schools,  and  it  is  therefore  becoming  increasingly  important 
to  gain  clear  ideas  of  the  bearing  of  such  a  fact  upon 
education. 

Under  the  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the  present 
day  the  nature  and  needs  of  the  girl  of  from  six  to  eleven  or 
twelve  years  of  age  do  not  seem  to  be  radically  different 
from  those  of  the  boy.  The  age  of  puberty,  which  with 
girls  frequently  begins  at  twelve,  and  the  economic  condi- 
tions, which  have  hitherto  demanded  some  degree  of 
specialised  preparation  for  after-school  life,  are  said  to  indi- 
cate that  this  stage  of  life  is  the  latest  moment  for  provid- 
ing them  with  teachers  of  their  own  sex.  Against  this 
conclusion  it  might  be  urged  that  there  is  nothing  in  the 
approach  of  adolescence  which  calls  for  this  separation,  but 
rather  the  reverse,  and,  further,  that  the  separation,  if  at 
all  necessary,  should  only  be  partial,  and  that  the  man's 
influence  should  supplement  the  woman's.  With  regard 
to  the  so-called  specialised  preparation  for  life,  a  large  body 
of  opinion  has  declared  against  the  introduction  of  such 
studies,  and  for  their  postponement  until  the  Continuation 
School  is  reached.  Moreover,  recent  sudden  changes  in 
our  national  life  are  giving  us  altogether  new  conceptions 
of  woman's  nature,  needs,  and  powers — conceptions  which 
may  involve  the  admission  of  the  necessity  for  the  man's 
influence  on  girls  of  all  ages.  Both  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schools  are  still  far  from  this  point  of  view. 
The  latter,  even  when  boys  and  girls  are  under  one  roof 
and  under  the  government  of  one  principal,  still  preserve 
practically  distinct  organisations. 

Such  an  arrangement  would  not  necessarily  be  recipro- 
cal ;  that  is,  it  would  not  therefore  follow  that  women  should 
teach  boys  of  all  ages,  either  partially  or  entirely. 

There  is   little   doubt   that  the  English   boy   is   more 


192  THE  CUBBICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

exuberant  and  obstreperously  curious  than  the  girl,  that  his 
demand  for  real  and  personally  interesting  work  is  more 
keen,  and  that  he  is  less  content  with  monotony  and  routine 
than  the  girl.  He  has  a  greater  zest  for  adventure  and 
creative  work,  a  spirit  more  intolerant  of  a  superimposed 
order  and  routine  ;  he  needs  a  firm  hand  and  a  dkecting 
mind  which  is  broad  and  catholic  to  respond  to  his  own 
actively  outreaching  mind.  The  man  teacher,  owing  to 
the  general  conditions  of  male  life,  has  at  present  a  broader 
and  more  intimate  knowledge  of  life  than  his  hitherto 
sheltered  colleague  of  the  other  sex.  It  therefore  follows 
that  as  a  general  rule  the  man  should  teach,  at  any  rate,  the 
older  boys,  and  indeed,  if  the  facts  stated  are  true,  it  would 
be  stimulating  if  the  benefits  enjoyed  by  the  boys  were,  so 
far  as  practicable,  shared  by  the  girls. 

The  question  of  the  sex  of  the  class  teacher  is  one  of  the 
most  important  and  serious  which  we  have  to  face,  and  is 
one  to  which  as  yet  we  have  no  absolute  answer.  Economic 
conditions  in  America  have  resulted  in  almost  abolishing 
the  male  teacher,  but  as  yet  it  is  impossible  to  gauge  the 
effects.  Curiously  enough ,  the  woman  teacher  in  Germany 
has  made  no  headway  in  the  Primary  Schools,  where  there 
are  only  18  women  to  100  men.  Here,  again,  we  have  no 
means  of  estimating  the  training  effects  of  this  arrange- 
ment, as  at  present  it  is  impossible  to  disentangle  the  ele- 
ments of  the  problem,  and  we  are  forced  to  rely  on  merely 
a  priori  considerations.  The  tendency  towards  elimination 
of  the  man  teacher  is  very  strong  in  this  country.  Facing 
this  fact,  and  confining  our  attention  to  the  narrow  issue 
of  allocation  of  the  staff,  we  conclude  that  the  woman 
teacher  will  in  general  find  her  largest  opportunities  and 
perform  her  best  work  with  girls  and  with  the  younger 
boys. 

The  supervision  of  the  promotion  of  pupils  from  one  class 
to  another  is  another  duty  of  the  head-teacher.     Its  proper 


OTHEE  ELEMENTS  OF  OKGANISATION    193 

performance  is  a  matter  of  interest  to  both  pupil  and 
teacher,  and  therefore,  in  different  ways,  both  should  have 
a  voice  in  the  decision.  The  natural  progress  and  develop- 
ment of  the  pupil  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  sound 
judgment  of  his  educators,  and  it  needs  but  little  reflection 
to  see  that  promotion,  to  be  beneficial,  must  be  carried  out 
with  due  regard  to  the  limited  powers  of  the  class  teacher 
to  deal  adequately  with  a  class  consisting  of  pupils  of 
diverse  attainments  and  powers.  In  short,  the  child's 
future  possibilities  of  service  and  the  teacher's  of  an  un- 
harassed  existence  hang  here  in  the  absence. 

In  the  old  evil  days  of  examination  on  Code  requirements 
each  scholar  remained  one  year  or  longer  in  the  same  class. 
If  he  failed  to  reach  the  required  examination  standard  he 
had  to  remain  another  year  working  at  the  same  syllabus, 
so  that  it  was  not  at  all  a  rare  thing  to  find  a  pupil  remain- 
ing several  years  in  the  same  standard,  and  who  was  likely, 
unless  a  miracle  happened,  to  remain  there  until  he  was  old 
enough  to  leave  school. 

There  were  two  great  evils  attEiched  to  this  system.  The 
bright  child  who  was  able  to  master  the  work  of  the  class 
in  a  much  shorter  time  than  the  rest  was  condemned  to 
mark  time  mentally,  not  entirely  because  of  the  necessity 
of  remaining  a  year  in  the  class,  but  because,  owing  to  an 
iniquitous  Government  grant  system,  his  teacher  had  no 
time  to  pay  proper  attention  to  scholars  who  were  certain 
of  passing  the  annual  examination.  Nowadays  it  would 
be  possible  to  cater,  at  least  to  some  degree,  for  such  chil- 
dren by  working  the  class  in  sections,  or  by  the  use  of 
private  study  and  independent  work,  both  of  which  were 
formerly  unknown  in  the  larger  schools.  The  possibilities 
of  individual  work  are,  however,  limited,  and  experience 
has  shown  that  the  difficulties  involved  will  not  allow  full 
justice  to  be  done  to  the  needs  of  such  children.  The  old 
system  took  no  heed  of  individuality ;  regimentation  was 

13 


194  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

the  order  of  the  day ;  the  child's  personahty  was  lost  sight 
of  in  the  class ;  special  powers,  special  needs  and  tastes, 
received  little  or  no  attention.  Any  system  of  promotion 
on  such  lines  is  clearly  to  be  condemned. 

The  other  evil  was  the  bad  effect  of  the  system  upon  the 
backward.  The  examination  used  to  decide  the  question  of 
promotion  was  confined  almost  completely  to  book  know- 
ledge, and  took  hardly  any  account  of  manual  powers  and 
first-hand  knowledge  of  man  and  Nature,  so  that  many  a 
child  who  had  powers  and  tastes  other  than  those  adopted 
as  educational  standards  was  adjudged  backward  and  re- 
fused promotion.  Or  perhaps  a  pupil  was  weak  in  arith- 
metic and  suffered  a  similar  penalty.  All  these  so-called 
backward,  stupid  children  were  condemned  to  be  left  be- 
hind in  the  forward  march  of  their  fellows,  and  to  find 
themselves  working  among  children  younger,  and  often 
much  younger,  than  themselves.  The  effects  of  this  treat- 
ment must  have  been  disastrous ;  discouragement  must 
have  produced  a  state  of  mind  quite  antagonistic  to  progress 
and  to  effort.  No  one  can  compute  how^  many  lives  have 
been  stunted  or  distorted  by  the  system. 

To-day  there  is  need  to  guard  against  error  of  a  contrary 
kind.  There  is  a  very  strong  tendency  to  promote  too 
rapidly.  Directly  a  bright  child  has  been  through  the  work 
of  his  standard,  and  even  before  he  has  been  through  it,  he 
is  frequently  promoted  to  a  higher  one.  The  general  test, 
if  one  may  call  it  a  test,  is  :  Has  he  been  through  the  new 
rules  in  the  arithmetic  syllabus  of  his  class?  Arithmetic 
has  many  sins  to  answer  for,  and  the  over-emphasis  of  its 
value  as  a  test  of  mental  efficiency  is  not  the  least.  But 
far  more  dangerous  than  the  mistake  as  to  the  value  of 
arithmetic  as  a  standard  of  measurement  is  the  mistake  as 
to  what  constitutes  real  knowledge.  There  are  several 
stages  before  real  knowledge  and  power  are  reached. 
There  is  first  the  merely  superficial  acceptance  of  an  idea ; 


OTHEB  ELEMENTS  OP  OKGANISATION    195 

then  comes  about  a  gradual  insight  into  its  import ;  then 
ownership  or  practical  experience  of  the  idea,  followed 
finally  by  the  transformation  of  the  idea  into  power  or 
habit/     Herbert    Spencer    summarises    the    four    stages 
epigrammatically  as  the  transformation  of  fact  into  faculty. 
In  modern  hurry  and  bustle  we  tend  to  overlook  the  neces- 
sity of  this  process,  and  to  imagine  that  the  pupil  is  ready 
to  attack  new  worlds  before  he  has  consolidated  his  pre- 
vious   and    precarious    conquests.     Most    teachers    have 
grasped  this  conception  ;  some  from  reflection  upon  the 
child's  natm'e,  and  others  from  the  experience  they  have 
had  in  trying  to  develop  the  knowledge  and  power  of  pupils 
who  have  failed  to  master  the  fundamental  ideas  without 
wliich  progress  is  slow  and  painful.     Unfortunately,  the 
necessity  of  making  the    numbers   in   the   classes  more 
approximately  equal   in  order  to  comply  with  Board  of 
Education  Regulations  with  regard  to  size  of  classes  has 
induced  various  Local  Education  Authorities  to  exert  pres- 
sure upon  the  head-teachers  to   promote  rapidly.      The 
result  has  been  not  only  an  intolerable  strain  upon  the 
class  teacher,  but  a  calamitous  undermining  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  essentials  of  real  development.     Not  only  has 
the  teacher  to  lose  his  pupil  at  the  very  moment  when  he 
obtains  a  glimpse  of  the  reward  of  his  efforts,  but  he  is 
constantly,  sometimes  every  three  months,  faced  with  a 
fresh  batch  of  arrivals,  to  whom  he  has  to  give  intensive 
teaching  in  the  midst  of  his  duties  to  the  happy  average 
pupil,  and  whom  he  has  to  pass  on  as  swiftly  as  possible  to 
still  higher  domains.     Unhappy  is  the  bright  child  sub- 
jected to  too  frequent  promotion,  and  unhappy  the  teacher 
who  is  the  victim  of  this  mistaken  system.     In  France, 
Germany,  and  America  promotion  is  never  carried  on  in 
this  reckless  fashion.     A  year  is  regarded  as  the  normal 
period  that  a  child  should  spend  in  one  class. 

*  See  L.C.C.  Memorandum  on  Homework  in  Evening  Institutes. 


196  THE  CURBICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

The  difficulty  of  the  position  in  England  is  accentuated 
by  a  really  enlightened  view  which  has  been  carried  too  far. 
We  have  noted  the  bad  eifects  resulting  from  retaining  the 
backward  child  in  the  same  standard  among  children  much 
younger  than  himself.  This  procedure  is  now  rarely  fol- 
lowed. It  is  now  generally  considered  that  after  a  year's 
work  in  one  standard  he  should  be  promoted.  Hence  the 
teacher  is  confronted  not  only  with  a  very  heterogeneous 
class,  but  one  which  shows  very  wide  divergencies,  from 
the  extremely  backward  to  the  very  bright.  His  work  is 
therefore  of  a  most  arduous  and  harassing  kind.  This 
additional  difficulty  could  be  removed  by  the  formation  of 
"remove  classes,"  referred  to  in  an  earlier  part  of  this 
chapter. 

There  is  always  danger  of  dogmatising  in  all  such  ques- 
tions;  every  case  should  be  considered  on  its  own  merits. 
The  decisions  as  to  promotion  must  be  made  by  the  head- 
teacher,  and  should  be  influenced  by  considerations  of  fair- 
ness to  both  pupil  and  teacher ;  no  rigid  rules  can  be  laid 
down.  None  the  less,  principles  are  of  little  value  unless 
they  are  capable  of  application  to  the  majority  of  cases.  It 
may  therefore  be  suggested  that  the  normal  procedure  should 
be  that  of  annual  promotions  for  the  mass  of  school  chil- 
dren, with  occasional  half-yearly  promotions  for  those  who 
show  some  special  degree  of  intelligence  and  power. 

A  great  difficulty  would  be  encountered  even  by  the 
bright  child  should  he  find  that  his  new  work  does  not  dove- 
tail with  his  recent  work  because  the  class  into  which  he 
has  been  promoted  has  half  completed  its  syllabus  for  the 
year.  Unless  some  plan  is  evolved  to  avoid  this,  he  will 
have  to  catch  on  with  work  which  is  six  months  ahead  of 
him.  The  plan  which  meets  with  fairly  general  approval, 
and  one  which  is  not  a  makeshift  or  mere  expedient,  as  it 
is  based  on  a  sound  principle,  that  of  revision,  is  to  arrange 
the  scheme  of  work  in  each  class  in  such  a  way  that  the 


OTHEE  ELEMENTS  OF  OEGANISATION    197 

greater  part  of  the  year's  syllabus  is  worked  through  in  the 
first  six  months,  the  smaller  part,  with  a  thorough  revision 
and  amplification  of  the  work  of  the  first  part,  being"  taken 
in  the  last  six  months.  The  course  of  a  very  bright  pupil 
misht  thus  follow  some  such  direction  as  is  shown  below  : 


Standard  I. 

1    Standard  II. 

Standard  III. 

Standard  IV. 

Standard  V. 

Ap^\  to 
Sfpt., 
1917. 

Sept., 

1017.  to 

Apr., 

IfllS. 

Apr.  to 
1   Sept., 

:  1017. 

Sept., 
1917,  to 
Apr., 

1918. 

Apr.  to 

Si'pL, 
1918. 

Sept., 
191S,  to 
Apr., 

1919.     ' 

1 

Apr.  to 

Sept., 
1918. 

Sept., 
1918, to 
Apr., 

1910. 

Apr.  to 
1919. 

Sfpt., 

1919,  to 

Apr., 

1920. 

Two- 
thirds 
of  sylla- 
bus. 

One- 
third  of 
sylla- 
bus 
and  re- 
vision. 

Two- 
;  thirds 
of  sylla- 
bus. 

One- 
third  of 

sylla-   j 

bus 
and  re- 
vision. 

Two- 
thirds 
of  sylla- 
bus. 

One- 
third  of 
sylla- 
bus 
and  re- 
vision. 

Two- 
thirds 
of  sylla- 
bus 

One- 
third  of 
sylla- 

1)US 

and  re- 
vision. 

Two- 
thirds 
of  sylla- 
bus. 

One- 
third  of 
sylla- 
bus 
and  re- 
vision. 

Thus,  if  he  begins  in  Standard  I.  at  seven  years  of  age, 
he  is  ten  on  completing"  twelve  months  in  Standard  V., 
and  probably  at  this  stage  either  passes  for  a  short  period 
into  Standard  VI.  or  proceeds  at  once  to  a  Secondary 
School.  By  some  arrangement  of  which  the  above  is  only 
one  type  the  bright  pupil  may  find  it  less  difficult  to  pick 
up  the  new  work  in  each  class  without  hurry  or  discourage- 
ment, and  the  normal  pupil  obtains  that  which  is  so  vital 
to  him,  the  opportunity  of  going  frequently  over  old  ground 
without  encountering  mere  repetitions. 

The  promotions,  whenever  they  take  place,  will  depend 
upon  three  factors — the  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  child's 
capacity,  the  daily  work,  and  examination  results.  The 
class  examinations  will,  however,  have  other  objectives 
besides  that  of  determining  promotion.  They  will  be 
employed  to  estimate,  not  only  individual,  but  class  pro- 
gress;  to  discover,  not  only  individual,  but  class  defects, 
and  thus  make  it  possible  to  remedy  both.    The  school 


198  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

curriculum  is,  or  should  be,  a  co-ordinated  whole,  of  which 
the  syllabus  of  each  class  is  an  integral  and  related  part. 
It  is  evident  that  a  curriculum  may  be  excellently  planned, 
but  badly  carried  out.  Hence  it  will  be  one  of  the  head- 
teacher's  most  important  duties  to  ascertain  by  means  of 
periodic  examinations  whether,  and  to  what  degree,  each 
class  is  fulfilling  its  task  in  relation  to  the  curriculum  as  a 
whole.  And'  it  is  to  the  interest  of  every  class  teacher  that 
this  testing  process  should  be  strictly  carried  out,  since  the 
aims  of  each  will  be  rendered  possible  or  seriously  hindered 
according  as  the  work  of  the  teachers  in  the  classes  below 
has  been  thoroughly  or  imperfectly  done.  There  is 
scarcely  anything  more  calculated  to  bring  about  lack  of 
unity  between  the  members  of  a  staff,  with  disastrous  con- 
sequences to  the  tone  of  the  school,  than  the  feeling  that 
some  have  not  contributed  their  proper  quota  of  energy  or 
thought  towards  satisfying  the  demands  of  the  curriculum. 
Hence  a  head-teacher  who  acts  with  justice  and  reasonable- 
ness will  always  find  support  for  his  criticism  and  structures 
in  the  acquiescence  of  his  staff.  There  is,  of  course,  no 
need  to  press  the  point  that  criticism  should  always  be 
tactful  and  generally  impersonal,  that  written  comment 
upon  the  teacher's  work  should  always  be  expressed  in 
moderate  terms  and  shown  to  the  teacher  concerned. 
With  fair  play  on  both  sides  there  should  be  no  grounds  for 
friction.  When,  however,  a  school  is  plagued  with  a  lazy 
or  careless  class  teacher,  the  head-teacher  must  exercise 
every  legitimate  power  he  possesses  to  obtain  better  work  ; 
when  a  staff  has  an  unreasonable  head,  each  member  has 
at  least  the  right  to  preserve  specimens  of  periodic  class 
work  to  combat  incorrect  deductions  made  from  the  results 
of  an  examination  on  unfair  lines.  These  are,  it  is  to  be 
hoped,  very  unusual  conditions,  and,  no  matter  what 
measures  may  be  taken,  the  efficiency  of  the  school  is 
bound  to  suffer, 


OTHEB  ELEMENTS  OF  OKGANISATION    199 

The  examinations  should  be  held  two  or  three  times  each 
year — under  ordinary  circumstances  at  the  end  of  each 
term.  In  the  lower  and  middle  classes  of  the  Upper 
School  it  would  be  sufficient  if  the  written  examination 
were  confined  to  arithmetic  and  composition,  with  an  indi- 
vidual test  of  progress  in  reading ;  the  testing  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  school  subjects  might  well  be  conducted  as 
an  oral  class  examination,  from  the  results  of  which  a  fairly 
accurate  estimate  of  the  work  done  could  be  obtained.  In 
the  upper  standard  written  answers  would  be  required  in 
other  subjects,  since  one  of  the  aims  of  school  training  is 
to  give  our  pupils  the  power  of  expressing  themselves. 
Nevertheless,  the  power  of  the  older  children  to  express 
themselves  orally  should  be  carefully  noted,  and  regarded 
as  an  important  part  of  the  examination. 

In  drawing  up  the  questions  to  which  answers  are  re- 
quired, the  collaboration  of  the  teacher  should  be  invited. 
This  may  be  done  by  arranging  that  some  questions  should 
be  set  by  the  class  master  or  mistress,  others  by  the  head- 
teacher.  The  whole  examination  should  be  treated  with 
ceremony  calculated  to  impress  without  terrifying  the  chil- 
dren with  its  importance,  and  as  a  piece  of  juvenile  respon- 
sibility foreshadowing  the  more  serious  responsibilities  of 
after-school  life. 

If  the  head-teacher  does  not  himself  mark  the  papers,  he 
should  at  any  rate  study  them  with  the  greatest  care,  for 
only  by  this  means  can  he  become  fully  aware  of  the  exact 
points  where  weaknesses  occur.  He  will  not  be  surprised 
at  finding  deficiencies  and  defects,  but  will  see  in  them 
opportunities  for  exercising  just  that  function  his  office 
exists  to  fulfil.  When  the  work  has  been  marked  and 
assessed,  he  has  two  duties  to  perform — viz.,  to  help  the 
individual  children  to  correct  their  mistaken  notions,  and 
to  help  the  teacher  to  remedy  general  weaknesses.  He 
will  therefore  see  that  the  children  study  their  owp  cor^ 


200  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

rected  answers,  and  that  general  faults  are  dealt  with 
either  by  himself  or  the  class  teacher.  He  will  also  set 
apart  a  special  time  for  discussing  with  his  staff  points  of 
weakness  disclosed  by  the  examination  results.  Tact  and 
sweet  reasonableness,  combined  with  perfect  frankness  and 
fearlessness,  are  valuable  qualities  at  this  juncture.  They 
are  not  only  valuable,  but  indispensable.  The  relation 
between  head  and  class  teacher  is  not  that  of  employer  and 
employee,  for  in  the  former  case  each  is  equally  interested 
in  the  processes  and  results  of  the  teaching.  Everything 
depends  on  the  maintenance  of  happy  relations  between 
the  two.  Collaboration  rather  than  command  should  be 
the  keynote  of  their  relations.  Hence  the  importance  of 
selecting  men  and  women  as  head-teachers  who  possess 
character  and  intuition  in  handling  their  fellows. 

The  question  of  homework  scarcely  arises  in  the  Ele- 
mentary School.  In  institutions  for  higher  education, 
however,  and  especially  in  Secondary  Schools,  it  becomes 
of  prime  importance.  Up  to  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen 
five  and  a  half  hours'  instruction  each  day  should  be  suffi- 
cient ;  more  than  this  would  probably  result  in  diminished 
energy  and  bad  health.  If  instead  of  large  doses  of  home- 
work certain  parts  of  the  school  time  were  regularly  set 
apart  for  independent  work  and  private  study,  the  scholar 
would  not  be  deprived  of  the  valuable  training  such  indi- 
vidual work  provides.  If  homework  must  be  given  in 
addition  to  this,  it  should  not  occupy  m,ore  than  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour  per  day. 

The  head  or  house  master  has  the  duty  of  supervising  the 
organisation  of  homework.  When,  as  is  usual,  a  pupil  has 
several  teachers,  each  dealing  with  his  own  special  subject, 
there  is  almost  certain  to  be  overpressure  unless  one  person 
has  the  task  of  co-ordinating  all  the  homework  set.  This 
individual  has  the  function  of  seeing  that  the  whole  of  the 
homework  does  not  take  even  the  slow  members  of  the 


OTHER  ELEMENTS  OF  ORGANISATION    201 

class  more  than  an  agreed  upon  time.  It  is  difficult  to 
say  what  this  time  should  be,  and  it  will,  of  course,  vary 
with  the  age  and  development  of  the  scholar  concerned. 
It  is  tolerably  certain  that  far  too  much  homework  is 
usually  given,  involving  a  strain  which  should  be  entirely 
absent  if  a  boy  or  girl  is  to  grow  into  a  healthy,  happy  man 
or  woman. 

All  attempts  to  induce  the  pupils  to  declare  how  long 
they  have  taken  over  their  work  fail  for  obvious  reasons. 
Few  children  will  make  frank  declarations  with  regard  to 
this  matter,  and  should  not  be  expected  to.  It  would  be 
far  better  to  determine  upon  a  low  minimum,  and  let  all 
additions  be  perfectly  voluntary  and  partake  of  the  nature 
of  hobbies.  Home  life  and  influence  are  so  vital  to  the 
education  of  the  young  that  nothing  should  be  required  by 
the  school  which  might  force  the  child  to  isolate  himself 
from  the  family  for  the  greater  part  of  each  evening,  as  is 
so  often  the  case.  If  mental  health  and  efficiency  are 
valuable  things,  then  the  head-teacher  or  some  responsible 
person  has  a  most  important  piece  of  supervising  work  with 
regard  to  homework. 

Co-ordination  of  effort  is  of  the  highest  importance,  and 
if  this  is  to  be  secured  to  the  fullest  possible  degree,  fre- 
quent interchange  of  thought  must  occur  between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  school  staff  and  between  the  latter  and  the  head- 
teacher.  This  is  a  point  the  value  of  which  in  English 
Elementary  Schools  is  often  underrated.  The  hard-worked 
teacher  is  naturally  unwilling  to  make  a  further  drain  upon 
his  time  by  remaining  after  school  hours  to  discuss  school 
problems,  and  the  head-teacher  generally  appreciates  this 
point  of  view.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  in  many 
schools  nothing  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  conference  ever 
takes  place.  It  ought  not  to  be  impossible  to  incorporate 
the  conference  as  an  integral  part  of  the  school  organisa- 
tion.     Au  occasional  rally  for  a  few  minutes  around  th^ 


202  THE  CUEEIOULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

head-teacher's  desk  is  of  Httle  use.  The  various  problems 
are  too  difficult  and  of  too  serious  a  nature  to  be  solved  in 
this  offhand  fashion.  The  German  teacher  has  to  consider 
it  part  of  his  ordinary  duty  to  appear  periodically  at  school 
at  an  abnormally  early  hour,  prepared  with  a  written  state- 
ment of  his  views  upon  ai  practical  problem  of  school  work. 
In  England  the  relations  between  the  class  and  head- 
teacher  are  different,  and  what  succeeds  in  Germany  by 
means  of  enforced  meetincfs  mi.fjht  in  England  succeed  by 
means  of  a  more  or  less  social  function.  The  informal  dis- 
cussion of  the  actual  school  problems  around  the  tea-table 
might  be  productive  of  most  beneficial  results,  and  the 
social  character  of  the  function  would  prevent  the  teacher 
from  feeling  that  he  is  giving  up  too  much  of  his  time  to 
business. 

That  head-teachers  of  the  three  departments  of  a  school 
should  frequently  confer  needs  no  emphasis,  but  that  the 
class  teachers  should  do  so  is  rarely  considered  necessary. 
And  yet,  if  there  is  to  be  any  real  continuity  in  the  mental 
life  of  the  child,  there  must  be  a  corresponding  continuity 
in  curriculum  and  methods  from  the  lowest  grade  of  the 
Infant  Department  to  the  top  classes  of  the  Girls'  and 
Boys'  Departments. 

It  is  very  desirable,  too,  that  the  staffs  of  schools  which 
are  related  geographically  or  through  common  aims  should 
communicate  regularly.  The  schools  contributory  to  one 
Secondary  or  Central  School ;  those  training  the  children  of 
a  particular  social  class ;  those  engaged  on  some  special 
work — for  example,  the  Higher  Grade,  Higher  Elemen- 
tary, and  Central  Schools — can  be  thoroughly  efficient 
only  so  far  as  they  act  in  collaboration.  Many  most  valu- 
able educational  secrets  lie  hidden  in  quiet  class-rooms,  and 
are  never  known  for  the  common  good.  It  is  true  that 
head-masters  of  such  gi'oups  of  schools  do  meet  in  confer- 
ence, but  this  is  quite  insufficient.     It  is  even  more  im- 


OTHER  ELEMENTS  OF  ORGANISATION    203 

portant  that  the  teachers  themselves  should  see  more  of 
one  another  and  interchange  ideas. 

The  conferences  of  teachers  organised  by  Local  Author- 
ities, and  in  which  inspectors  frequently  take  part,  are 
extremely  valuable,  but  fall  short  of  full  usefulness  owing 
to  two  great  defects.  In  the  first  place,  just  the  very 
teachers  who  most  need  their  influence  fail  to  attend,  and, 
in  the  second  place,  the  meetings  are  generally  too  large 
for  getting  full  practical  value  out  of  them.  The  effect  is 
generally  stimulating,  but  transitory  ;  they  do  not  solve  the 
problems  which  actually  face  the  ordinary  class  teacher. 

Every  educationist  would  agree  that  the  more  the 
teachers  confer  and  discuss  and  suggest  in  well-organised 
conferences,  the  better  for  education.  But  the  utility  of 
the  big  conference  depends  to  a  very  large  degree  upon  the 
regular  functioning  of  the  small  conference  between  the 
head-teacher  and  the  members  of  his  staff.  So  important 
is  this  that  educational  authorities  should  provide  every 
facility  for  it ;  the  head-teacher  should  have  the  power  to 
give  a  certain  number  of  half-holidays  a  year,  or  to  curtail 
the  afternoon  session  in  order  to  set  the  teachers  free  for 
this  purpose.  The  larger  conferences,  such  as  those 
organised  by  the  Local  Educational  Authority,  should  not 
take  place  during  the  recognised  school  vacations.  As 
school  hours  and  work  are  organised  at  present,  the  teacher 
needs  every  minute  of  the  short  holidays  for  recuperation 
and  rest,  and  ought  not  to  give  up  a  week  or  even  a  day  to 
attend  educational  conferences.  If  school  hours  were 
shortened ,  if  enforced  and  unnatural  promotions  of  pupils 
no  longer  occurred,  and  classes  were  reduced  in  size  to  fair 
proportions,  then  attendance  at  such  conferences  might  be 
expected.  In  any  case,  attendance  can  never  become  com- 
pulsory in  this  country  ;  it  is  therefore  only  by  means  of 
lightening  the  teacher's  burden,  and  by  ameliorating  the 
conditions  of  service  in  every  possible  way,  that  he  will  iri 


204  THE  CUERICDLA  OF  SCHOOLS 

the  mass  be  brought  to  view  his  work  less  as  a  giving  of  so 
much  labour  for  so  much,  or  generally  for  so  little,  salary 
than  as  a  profession  in  which  he  is  collaborating,  on  cordial 
terms,  with  all  that  is  most  enlightened  and  sympathetic 
in  the  community.  He  may  then  feel  that  he  is  no  longer 
an  overworked  and  underpaid  servant ,  but  an  active  partici- 
pant and  co-partner  in  the  highest  form  of  social  work — 
work  for  which  he  is  willing  and  ready  to  sacrifice  pleasure 
and  leisure,  even  to  the  extent  of  attending  teachers'  con- 
ferences. 


CHAPTEE  Xl 

SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT 

Psychologists  and  educationists  tell  us  that  human  char- 
acter is  what  it  is  largely  as  a  result  of  the  social  system  ; 
that  nine-tenths  of  our  thoughts  and  activities  spring  from 
and  are  directed,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  upon  our 
communal  life.  Man  is  primordially  a  social  animal.  The 
reasoning  power  in  which  he  sees  himself  differentiated 
from  other  animals  took  root  and  underwent  development 
in  the  soil  of  the  social  instincts.  He  is  almost  entirely 
what  he  is  as  a  result  of  the  influences  of  family,  city, 
national  and  international  influences. 

The  aim,  consciously  held  or  not,  of  all  school  education 
is  to  fit  the  children  to  play  a  useful  and  worthy  part  in  the 
life  of  the  community  as  it  is  constituted  at  the  time.  If 
the  Government  is  an  autocracy,  the  aim  will  be  to  teach 
passive  obedience  to  the  rulers ;  fear,  which  is  the  motive 
])ower  of  the  despotic  Government,  must  become  the  motive 
j)Ower  in  the  school.  If  the  ruhng  power  is  a  limited 
monarchy,  the  ideals  of  honour  and  the  desire  for  honours 
and  prizes  nmst  be  the  pivot  of  school  government.  In  a 
true  democracy  the  inculcation  of  virtue  in  its  widest  sense 
will  he  the  basis  of  its  education,  and  the  ideals  of  equal 
opportunity  and  social  usefuhiess  will  be  seen  in  every  part 
of  school  life.  The  great  mass  of  schools  in  a  democratic 
country  will  naturally  be  public  schools  mirroring  the 
community  which  has  brought  them  to  birth.  But  it  is- 
essential  to  progress  that  a  large  amount  of  freedom  for 
experiment  should  not  only  be  tolerated,  but  enconraged.- 

205 


206  THE  CUBEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

In  America  and  in  England  this  freedom  exists  in  full 
measure,  and  some  advantage  has  been  taken  of  it ;  neither 
France  nor  Germany  has  enjoyed  this  freedom  to  anything 
like  the  same  extent. 

The  chief  experiments  have  been  made  in  the  sphere  of 
cun-icula,  but  there  has  also  been  a  very  large  amount  of 
experiment  in  that  of  school  government.  While  the  great 
mass  of  teachers  has  been  content  to  follow  the  general 
track  and  adopt  the  simple  method  of  humane  but  auto- 
cratic government,  many  have  sought  to  find  forms  in 
which  the  pupil  could  learn  to  guide  his  conduct  by  means 
of  an  inner  monitor,  by  the  self-imposition  of  prohibitions 
and  commands. 

Professor  Dewey  has  pointed  out  with  great  clearness 
one  very  common  error  in  our  methods  of  discipline  and 
government.  We  all  admit  the  necessity,  he  says,  of  pre- 
paring the  pupils  for  the  social  life  aw^aiting  them,  for  the 
performance  of  social  duties,  and  yet  our  school  government 
is  of  a  kind  that  seems  to  assume  a  non-social  condition  of 
things.  We  put  the  children  in  separate  desks ;  they  are 
rarely  allowed  to  speak  to  one  another ;  solitary  or,  as  we 
misname  it,  independent  work  is  strictly  enforced ;  in  fact, 
apart  from  school  games,  none  of  the  school  occupations 
is  co-operative.  How,  then,  he  asks,  can  these  methods 
train  a  child  for  his  future  activities  as  a  member  of  society  ? 

Some  seek  to  give  this  training  for  citizenship  by  teach- 
ing what  is  called  "  civics."  But  a  very  cursory  examina- 
tion of  human  nature  shows  us  that  no  theoretical  instruc- 
tion is  capable  of  producing  the  man  of  action,  and  that  the 
full  realisation  of  the  importance  of  responsible  social  action 
is  not  the  result  of  talk,  but  of  action.  To  train  for  effi- 
ciency in  social  life  as  a  whole,  the  entire  school  life  must 
be  made  use  of ;  not  some  single  branch  of  knowledge  such 
as  civics,  nor  any  amount  of  hortatory  counsel,  can  touch 
the  fringe  of  this  great  pm'pose,  but  an  organisation  of  all 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  207 

school  work  and  play  is  needed,  the  employment  of  every 
subject  of  the  cm'riculum,  and  the  socialising  of  every  child 
activity  so  far  as  child  nature  will  allow. 

To  rely  upon  the  teaching  of  civics  as  a  preparation  for 
the  social  duties  is  to  overlook  the  complexity  and  many- 
sidedness  of  life,  and  to  ignore  the  fact  that  all  this  com- 
plexity is  be  found  in  germ  within  the  walls  of  the  school 
and  playground.  Even  if  this  is  not  entirely  true — if  some 
adult  duties  do  not  appear  in  embryo  in  the  school  society — 
yet,  since  our  educational  aim  includes  not  merely  prepara- 
tion for  a  future  life,  but  assistance  in  living  the  actual 
present  life,  and  since  the  actual  life  of  the  child  is  social 
to  its  core,  it  follows  that  the  school  should  be  organised 
through  and  through  on  the  lines  of  purposeful  co-operative 
activity. 

This  does  not  mean  mere  management  by  the  pupils  of 
their  own  disciplinary  matters,  sometimes  called  self- 
government,  although  with  the  growing  power  of  reason 
and  sensitiveness  to  co-operative  purposes  in  school  life  the 
government  should  fall  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of 
the  class  or  school.  The  young  child,  ignorant  of  the 
grounds  for  the  restrictions  and  positive  commands  forced 
upon  him  by  adults,  cannot  be  allowed  to  play  fast  and 
loose  with  matters  so  vital  to  himself  and  the  stability  of 
society.  In  a  later  part  of  the  chapter  we  shall  deal  more 
in  detail  with  the  subject  of  self-government.  In  the 
meantime  we  wish  to  lay  stress  upon  a  means  of  educating 
for  conmmnity  life  which  has  been  much  neglected  and 
even  ignored.  The  daily  and  hourly  work  of  the  school  is 
the  means  to  the  end  in  view  ;  all  other  means,  such  as 
instruction  in  "civics"  and  self-government,  high-sound- 
ing though  they  may  be,  are  of  subsidiary  value.  The 
common  task  is  the  natural  centre  of  activity  in  which  the 
future  responsible  co-operative  activities  must  find  their 
source. 


208  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

There  is  no  need  to  demonstrate  that  school  games,  even 
when  organised  and  conducted  by  the  teacher,  as  will  often 
be  the  case  with  infants,  cultivate  the  spirit  of  give  and 
take,  and  suggest  the  co-operative  purpose  and  unity  of 
effort  required  in  the  actual  and  future  life  of  the  child. 
When  these  games  are  spontaneously  suggested  and  carried 
out  by  the  class  themselves,  we  approach  the  higher  type 
of  social  group  activities.      But  when  the  pupils  in  the 
course  of  their  development  begin  to  organise  and  manage 
then'  own  sports,  appoint  their  own  officials,  and  as  a  group 
act  independently  of  their  educators,  we  obtain  a  state  of 
things  almost  identical  with  the  conditions  of  adult  com- 
munal life.     One  important  element  of  the  latter  is  the 
choice  of  good  leaders  and  the  possibility  of  real  success  or 
real  failure.     Hence  games  have  for  long  been  regarded  in 
England  and  America  as  an  admirable  and  essential  source 
of  training.     The  Public  Schools  of  England  have  been 
remarkably  strong  on  this  side,  and  have  been  able,  pos- 
sibly owing  in  some  degree  to  the  training  afforded  in  the 
leadership  of  games,  to  furnish  a  supply  of  men  whom 
native  races  naturally  came  to  regard  as  born  rulers.     It  is 
true  that  many  native  races  are  easily  impressed  by  almost 
any  type  of  white  man,  but  the  main  contention  as  to  the 
part  played  by  the  Public  School  is  largely  true.     It  is 
none  the  less  true  that  the  powers  developed  on  the  playing- 
fields — the  spirit  of  fairness  and  esprit  de  corps  and  the  con- 
centration of  mind  on  a  common  purpose — are  more  suited 
to  the  comparatively  simple  task  of  ruling  half-civilised 
l>eoples  than  to  the  immensely  complicated  one  of  adminis- 
trating and  governing  a  highly  civilised  and  progressive 
community.     And  there  is  little  doubt  that  in  this  direc- 
tion the  Public  Schools  have  been  less  successful.     Using 
restraint  in  language,  we  may  venture  to  assert  that  the 
Public  Schools  have  in  the  past  neglected  the  work  side 

and  concentrated  all  their  energies  on  the  play  side  of  social 


SCHOOL  GOVEENMENT  209 

life.  Co-operation  for  serious  purposes  has  never  been 
developed,  and,  after  all,  it  is  a  serious  matter  to  live. 
Perhaps  human  nature  will  never  be  able  to  envisage  two 
aspects  of  life  in  anything-  like  perfect  proportion,  but  it  is 
at  any  rate  the  duty  of  the  schools  to  try  to  do  so. 

Hence  we  are  drawn  back  once  more  to  find  the  main 
sources  of  social  education  in  the  work  of  the  school.  While 
not  neglecting  opportunities  offered  by  games,  we  must 
utilise  the  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  manual,  and  all 
other  serious  work  of  the  school,  in  the  service  of  social 
training. 

We  have  seen  that  the  school  tradition  of  separate  and 
independent  work,  with  all  suppression  of  intercommunica- 
tion and  exchange  of  ideas,  is  a  mistake.  We  shall  try 
not  to  fall  into  the  contrary  error  of  giving  too  large  a  place 
to  group  work  at  the  expense  of  that  individual  and  inde- 
pendent thought  and  initiative  which  is  vital  to  the  growth 
of  knowledge,  will,  and  character.  But  the  true  teacher 
will,  even  in  such  work,  always  take  up  the  position  that 
the  products  of  the  children's  minds  and  hands  are  the 
result  of  society's  care  and  thoughtfulness,  and  that  there- 
fore they  should  be  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  social  fabric. 
Knowledge  gained  or  power  acquired  should  be  freely  and 
gladly  passed  on  to  others ;  our  pupils  shall  tell  the  others 
the  valuable  facts  they  have  discovered  from  reading  and 
study  ;  their  class  explanations  and  statements  shall  not  be 
merely  for  the  teacher's  ear  and  satisfaction,  but  shall  be 
used  as  a  living  means  of  conveying  information  of  worth 
to  their  class-mates.  A  class  is  often  wholly  occupied  in 
trying  to  give  the  answer  which  shall  merely  satisfy  the 
teacher.  Natural  enough,  perhaps,  but  it  is  the  least  im- 
portant aspect  of  the  process.  The  children  know  very 
well  that  the  teacher  knows  the  answer,  and  therefore  their 
responses  lack  almost  entirely  the  spontaneity  which  cliar- 
acterises  intercourse  in  real  life.     Adopt  the  other  attitude, 

14 


210  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

and  the  social  training  becomes  evident  at  once.  This 
type  of  work  is  much  more  common  in  xA.merica  than  any- 
where else ;  even  among  American  teachers  we  find  the 
same  free  co-operative  spirit  exhibited  in  the  institution  of 
visits  to  other  schools  to  see  other  teachers  at  work.  There 
is  very  little  of  the  dog  in  the  manger  attitude  among 
American  teachers.  In  this  way  only  shall  we  succeed  in 
training  children  to  use  their  gifts  and  knowledge  with  a 
full  sense  of  responsibility  to  the  community. 

We  have  no  space  in  a  book  of  this  sort  to  deal  in  detail 
with  the  way  in  which  problems  arising  in  all  the  subjects 
of  the  school  curriculum  can  be  treated  as  material  to  which 
the  whole  class  can  contribute,  either  as  individuals  or  as 
groups  temporarily  formed  for  the  special  purpose.  Dr. 
Scott,  in  his  work  on  "  Social  Education,"  gives  numerous 
examples  drawn  from  various  school  subjects  of  the  way 
in  which  the  ordinary  work  of  the  school  can  become  a 
splendid  means  of  training  for  the  communal  life  which 
awaits  every  child.  What  we  all  need  is  a  conversion  of 
attitude.  Most  of  us  put  ourselves  into  a  position  of  oppo- 
sition to  our  classes,  not  always,  but  frequently,  by  disre- 
garding the  socialising  factors  involved  in  all  acquisition  of 
knowledge  and  power ;  we  succeed  in  conferring  the  know- 
ledge or  power  upon  individuals  with  a  certain  degree  of 
friction,  because  the  deepest  of  all  instincts,  the  social, 
and  the  most  appealing  incentive,  the  altruistic,  have  been 
imperfectly  used.  And  this  conversion  of  attitude  takes 
place  directly  we  have  seen  the  need  for  it,  and  must  in 
smaller  or  gi'eater  degree  affect  our  teaching. 

The  teacher's  purpose,  while  it  does  and  should  play 
its  directing  and  controlling  part,  must  generally,  and 
especially  with  younger  children,  remain  unknown  to  the 
pupils.  Too  frequently  it  is  not  only  in  opposition  to,  but 
usurps  the  place  of  the  joint  purpose  of  the  class.  Some- 
times this  opposition  is  admittedly  present,  as  when  the 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  211 

teacher  decides  what  the  child  shall  learn,  and  makes  him 
learn  it.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  this  condition  of  things 
is  sometimes  necessary,  but  that  it  should  be  the  regular 
atmosphere  of  the  class-room  is  altogether  a  false  notion  of 
school  activity.  Sometimes  the  opposition  is  at  first 
obscured,  as  when  the  teacher  catches  the  spontaneous 
interest  of  an  entire  class  by  beginning  a  story,  and  either 
ends  with  a  moral  or  evolves  a  point  of  grammar  or  a  word- 
building  lesson  somewhat  clumsily  out  of  it.  Sometimes, 
again,  the  skilful  teacher,  in  accord  with  a  law  of  interest, 
succeeds  in  interesting  his  pupils  in  a  problem  which  is 
real  to  them,  and  then  tries  to  take  them  through  the 
necessary  drudgery  involved  in  attaining  a  scientific  solu- 
tion when!  they  would  have  been  quite  content  with  a  more 
empirical  treatment  of  it,  in  attaining  which  they  would 
have  continued  to  give  spontaneous  interest.  Professor 
Dewey  often  appears  to  go  far  beyond  the  purposes  of  his 
[jupils  and  to  inflict  upon  them  long  processes  of  instruction 
and  activity  in  which  their  initial  purpose  is  early  lost 
sight  of,  with  the  resulting  loss  of  acquired  interest  in  the 
steps  of  the  process  which  lead  to  the  aim  first  envisaged. 
This  method  of  decoy  is  often  not  without  its  value,  but  it 
labours  under  many  disadvantages,  not  the  least  of  which 
is  that  the  loss  of  reality  entails  the  destruction  of  the 
socialising  force  involved  in  all  school  work  which  is  recog- 
nised as  being  of  intrinsic  value  in  itself. 

Wherever  the  teacher  has  to  deal  with  pupils  or  students 
not  yet  mature  enough  to  be  able  to  pursue  a  desired  end 
tlu'ough  happy  and  unhappy  work,  through  congenial  and 
uncongenial  and  often  numerous  stages,  he  must,  if  he  is 
not  to  lose  the  socialising  effects  of  the  training,  let  it  be 
clearly  seen  that  the  work  taken  is  real  work,  necessary  to 
complete  living.  The  young  bootmaker  or  butcher  occu- 
pied in  a  Continuation  School  will  miss  the  most  valuable 
part  of  his  training — which  is  education  for  citizenship — if 


212  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

his  occupation  and  the  part  it  plays  in  the  work  of  the 
world,  its  relations  with  other  trades,  and  the  contribu- 
tions from  all  other  sections  of  labour  and  coinmerce,  are 
not  made  the  basis  of  his  work  in  the  school.  The  appren- 
tice "  sees  the  master  or  journeyman,  whose  rival  he  will 
become  later,  taking  trouble  to  develop  all  the  powers 
which  will  eventually  make  him  a  good  fellow-workman. 
He  sees  the  whole  guild,  trade  association,  factory  insti- 
tute, taking  a  lively  interest  in  his  own  self.  He  sees  and 
feels  in  the  many  regulations  a  loyal  subordination  of  the 
individual  to  the  majority.  It  would  be  astonishing  if  no 
vigorous  germs  of  solidarity  were  to  spring  from  these  rela- 
tions— at  least,  among  the  most  efficient  pupils.  The 
development  of  that  greater  form  of  public  spirit  which  we 
call  love  of  country  is  only  possible  under  these  condi- 
tions."^ 

Dr.  Scott  describes  another  form  of  co-operative  work 
which,  under  favourable  conditions,  is  capable  of  general 
employment.  In  fact,  many  schools  have  already  adopted 
something  which  closely  resembles  it.  Three  half-hours  a 
week  were  granted  the  pupils  of  a  Grade  III.  (eight  to  nine 
years  of  age)  class  to  carry  out  individually  or  in  groups  any 
piece  of  work  they  might  choose  to  plan.  One  condition 
was  that  what  they  began  they  must  complete.  Most  of 
the  pupils  fell  into  groups  and  undertook  the  execution  of 
varied  plans.  Some  constituted  themselves  into  a  print- 
ing group,  because  one  of  the  boys  possessed  some  neces- 
sary materials  and  a  little  knowledge.  The  latter  they 
increased  by  application  to  people  capable  of  giving  in- 
formation. Others  formed  a  farmer  group,  a  firemen 
group,  a  Wild  West  group,  a  battle  group,  an  arts  group, 
a  reading  and  dramatic  group.  When  completed,  the 
products  were  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  whole  class, 
members  of  which  commented  upon  and  asked  numerous 

^  Kerschensteiner,  "  Education  for  Citizenship,"  p.  68. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  213 

questions  about  their  various  aspects.  The  amount  of 
eager  research  and  labour  spent  upon  these  various  projects 
and  the  practice  in  collaboration  and  leadership  involved 
in  them  were  certainly  invaluable  means  for  promoting  the 
civic  feeling  of  responsibility  and  common  purpose. 

It  was  found  that  the  self-imposed  problems  were  nine 
times  out  of  ten  problems  drawn  from  real  life,  just  as 
adult  gToups  set  themselves  to  solve  in  co-operation  the 
problems  of  their  social  existence.  The  chief  reason  why 
only  a  portion  of  the  school  work  can  be  conducted  on  these 
lines  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  lack  system  and  proceed 
along  the  zigzag  com'se  followed  by  the  race.  The  short- 
circuits  which  could  be  obtained  by  systematically  arranged 
knowledge  or  by  well-graded  steps  in  technical  skill  are 
impossible.  Such  a  method,  if  used  without  discrimina- 
tion, would  result  in  the  loss  of  even  that  degree  of  unity 
of  thought  and  purpose  which  we  aim  to  make  the  posses- 
sion of  the  average  child. 

If  this  system  of  socialising  the  school  work  could  be 
ideally  carried  out,  there  would  be  no  need  either  for 
rewards  or  punishments.  The  success  of  the  work,  the 
intense  pleasure  of  dealing  v/ith  real  tasks  co-operatively, 
would  constitute  the  only  reward  needed. 

The  failure  of  the  task  undertaken,  the  disappointed 
hopes,  would  never  require  any  further  penalty,  and  the 
question  of  order  and  discipline  would  scarcely  enter  in  at 
all.  Class  management  would  be  shorn  of  all  its  disagree- 
able oppositions  and  frictions,  and  a  busy,  eager  little  com- 
]iiunity  would  appear  in  the  place  of  an  aggregate  of  chil- 
dren ripe  for  distraction  and  mischief. 

This  ideal  state,  unfortunately,  cannot  be  realised. 
Children  and  teachers  are  full  of  inipeii'ections.  Perfect 
})lans  by  the  teacher  would  encounter  lazy,  indifferent 
children,  classes  of  very  varied  powers;  perfectly  homo- 
geneous classes  and  normal  children  would  encounter  the 


214  THE  CUKEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

ordinary  human  teacher  who  makes  mistakes,  and  only 
sometimes  is  aware  of  it.  In  addition  to  these  eternal 
elements  of  imperfection,  large  classes,  ill-timed  promo- 
tions, the  examination  habit,  and  a  thousand  and  one  other 
unfavourable  conditions,  render  the  ideal  unattainable. 
But  if  we  are  only  aware  of  the  direction  in  w4}ich  progress 
lies;  if,  in  other  words,  we  grasp  the  idea  of  school  life  as 
communal  and  preparatory  for  citizen  life,  our  work  as 
teachers  must  at  least  be  on  the  right  lines  and  heading  for 
the  right  goal. 

Many  teachers  have  already  grasped  this  idea,  and  amid 
great  difficulties  are  working  out  plans  for  school  govern- 
ment on  the  lines  indicated.  A  few  quotations  are  here 
appended  from  an  account  by  a  London  head-teacher,^ 
descriptive  of  some  of  the  means  adopted  to  give  the  mass 
of  pupils  a  training  in  self-government,  self-help,  and  co- 
operation : 

"  As  a  means  to  the  end,"  he  says,  "  one  tries  to  foster, 
with  alertness  of  mental  outlook,  alertness  of  body,  ability 
and  willingness  to  undertake  a  task  and  to  carry  it  on  with- 
out constant  supervision,  a  habit  of  accepting  responsi- 
bility." 

"The  itinerary  of  a  literary  ramble  through  Dickens's 
London  was  drawn  up  and  carefully  annotated  with  ex- 
planations and  quotations ;  a  map  was  starred  and  num- 
bered to  correspond  with  sections  of  the  itinerary,  and  the 
whole  account  was  typed  and  bound  in  the  school  by  a 
group  of  boys  interested." 

"  On  Dickens's  birthday  last  year  the  boys'  collections 
were  massed  into  a  Dickens  Exhibition.  It  contained 
over  500  exhibits,  and  was  freely  visited  by  the  girls  and 
by  pupils  of  the  Evening  Institute." 

"One  class  has  organised  a  reading  club  which  buys 
magazines  and  books.     The  boys  use  the  School  and  Public 

*  Mr.  A.  Linecar,  late  of  the  L.C.C.  Oliver  Goldsmith  School, 


SCHOOL  GOVEENMENT  215 

Library,  and  the  class-room  is  open  at  certain  times,  with- 
out restriction  or  supervision,  to  be  used  as  a  reading-room. 
The  Pubho  Librarian  is  a  good  friend  to  the  school,  and  is 
always  ready  to  give  help  or  advice  to  individuals  or  groups 
of  boys  seeking  special  knowledge." 

"  At  times  a  class  prepares  a  play,  and  a  dramatic  repre- 
sentation is  given  by  the  upper  part  of  the  school  every 
year.  There  is  a  school  choir  and  orchestra,  which  have 
given  many  school  and  one  or  two  public  performances. 
These  groups  of  pupils,  together  with  the  football, 
cricket,  and  swimming  clubs,  are  encouraged  to  organise 
and  manage  then-  own  affairs  with  as  little  help  as 
possible." 

So  far  we  have  discussed  class  government  as  if  it  were 
class  work,  and,  indeed,  these  two  cannot  be  kept  apart. 
The  idea  that  one  may  be  a  bad  teacher  but  a  good  discip- 
linarian, while  it  contains  an  element  of  truth,  is,  viewed 
properly,  false.  The  teacher's  function  is  quite  different 
from  that  of  a  policeman.  Severity  used  as  the  chief  means 
of  securing  good  order  and  even  good  work  must  be  con- 
demned, and  the  teacher  who  resorts  to  it  regularly  has  no 
title  to  be  in  the  profession.  Severity  can  only  produce 
an  unwilling  slave  or  an  independent  spirit  in  revolt ;  it  can 
never  produce  a  true  social  unit. 

We  shall  not  confuse  severity  with  control.  The  former 
is  only  one  means  of  securing  the  latter,  and  one  to  be  used 
only  as  a  last  resort.  Good  social  habits  must  be  initiated 
by  all  legitimate  educational  means.  Habits  are  vital  to 
adjustment,  and  in  helping  to  form  them,  the  teacher  has 
to  steer  between  the  two  opposite  dangers  of  slavish 
obedience  and  anarchy.  The  habits  he  induces,  such  as 
punctuality,  obedience,  resti'aint  in  movoinent  and  speech, 
good  manners,  will  at  first  be  mere  habits,  enforced  by 
every  type  of  influence  the  teacher  has  at  his  disposal,  even 


216  THE  CURBICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

to  the  point  of  extreme  severity.  A&  the  pupil  develops  he 
must  gradually  be  brought  to  see  the  reasons  for  certain 
demands  made  upon  him,  for  the  restraints  that  are  placed 
upon  him.  The  social  view  of  the  matter  is  the  only  one 
that  can  satisfy  his  intellect  and  heart — the  need  of  re- 
straint and  self-control  for  the  good  of  the  class,  the  need 
of  law  and  order  for  the  sake  of  the  common  good.  When 
this  stage  is  reached,  severity  is  almost  obsolete,  and  where 
it  is  necessary  the  teacher  will  have  such  support  from  the 
class  as  a  whole  as  will  make  the  punishment  almost  a 
religious  ceremony.^ 

When  the  age  of  reason  has  been  reached,  or,  more  defi- 
nitely, when  the  pupils  are  developed  enough  to  be  able  to 
understand  why  in  general  the  teacher  makes  laws  and 
regulations,  this  cordial  support  must  be  obtained,  other- 
wise the  social  training  is  a  failure.  Teacher  and  class 
must  pull  together  in  this  matter.  According  to  Mr. 
Thistleton  Mark,  the  American  teacher  succeeds  in  achiev- 
ing this.  He  says  that  "the  typical  American  teacher 
has  a  habit  of  getting  behind  the  will  of  the  child  instead  of 
confronting  it."^  In  England  much  still  remains  to  be 
done,  both  in  Primary  and  Secondary  Schools,  to  develop 
the  notion  of  the  common  as  opposed  to  the  individual 
good.  In  spite  of  theoretical,  moral,  and  civic  instruction 
in  French  schools,  the  French  teacher  has  not  succeeded 

^  The  following  illustrative  case  is  given  by  Dr.  Scott.  "  A  case  of 
discipline  had  arisen,  and  the  teacher  said  to  a  certain  boy  :  '  Well, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  I  shall  have  to  punish  you.'  The  boy  replied  in 
the  presence  of  the  class  :  '  Oh  j^es,  punish  me  ;  7/ou  are  always  down 
on  me.'  This  touched  the  teacher,  and,  being  human  enough  to  flare 
up,  he  said  impulsively  :  '  I'll  leave  it  to  the  rest  if  you  don't  deserve 
it.  More  than  that,  I'll  leave  the  class  entirely  to  itself  in  deciding. 
I'll  turn  my  face  to  the  wall,  and  they  can  vote  without  my  seeing 
them  ;  and  I'll  never  ask  a  boy  how  he  has  voted.'  The  vote  was 
reported  to  the  teacher  as  unanimously  in  favour  of  the  boy's  being 
punished.  At  this  point  the  boy  broke  down  completely,  and  through 
his  tears  said  :  '  Well,  it  must  be  right  since  everybody  says  so.'  " 

^  Board  of  Education  Special  Reports,  vol.  x.,  part  1,  p.  44. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  217 

in  inducing  this  willing  co-operation  either  between  his 
pupils  or  between  himself  and  them. 

And  now  we  come  to  what  has  too  generally  been  re- 
garded as  the  real  problem  of  school  government.  The 
question  as  to  how  far  the  children  themselves  should  or 
can  take  a  hand  in  the  school  government — in  executive 
and  even  in  administrative  functions — has  in  recent  years 
come  into  the  foregi'ound.  The  problem  is  not  unim- 
portant, but  in  comparison  with  the  much  broader  problem 
of  transforming  school  studies  into  co-operative  social 
activities  it  is  insignificant.  Self-government  in  varying 
degrees  may  be  introduced  into  the  school,  but  it  cannot 
succeed  in  taking  permanent  root  without  growth  in 
socialised  self-control. 

How  far,  then,  if  at  all,  shall  the  pupil  help  in  the 
governing  functions?  The  question  has  been  answered  in 
the  Secondary  Schools  by  the  prefect  system.  Dr.  Arnold 
of  Bugby  began  a  new  epoch  in  Public  School  education  by 
infusing  a  new  spirit  into  the  school,  and  one  of  the  instru- 
ments of  which  he  made  great  use  was  the  plan  of  govern- 
ment by  prefects.  "Finding  that  the  older  scholars  in 
such  a  society  already  wielded  authority  over  the  younger, 
he  legalised  this  authority,  placing  responsibility  on  those 
whose  attainments  and  character  fitted  them  to  bear  it,  and 
approving  a  period  of  service  as  '  fags  '  for  those  who  were 
younger."^ 

The  prefectorial  system  of  the  Secondary  School  is  so 
well  known  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe  it.  The  sys- 
tem does  not  by  itself  produce  good  school  government, 
for  some  schools  employing  it  fail  altogether  to  achieve 
anything  like  the  character  training  we  have  described. 
Occasionally  under  prefect  government  there  is  a  marked 
absence  of  esprit  de  corps,  of  the  feeling  of  responsibility, 

Findlay,  "  The  School,"  p.  234. 


2i8  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

of  self-control,  of  "  tone  "  generally.  The  policy  of  merely 
transforming  police  duties  from  the  teacher  to  an  oligarchy 
of  pupils  does  not  strike  the  highest  note  in  the  harmony 
of  co-operative  unity  and  socialised  self-control.  The 
spirit  of  opposition  to  authority  may  and  often  does  exist 
under  the  prefect  system,  just  the  same  as  when  teachers 
keep  the  government  entirely  in  their  own  hands. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  system  into 
ElementarS^  Schools.  Some  head-teachers  have  experi- 
mented oh  their  own  initiative  ;  in  some  cases,  as  in  War- 
wickshire,^ the  Local  Education  Authority  has  caiTied  out 

^combiiffed -ex'periment   in   a  number   of  schools.     Mr. 

^febury  claims  that  a  prefect  system  furnishes  the 
jaratus  for  bur  pupils  to  acquire  the  high  ideals  which 

ive  existed  as  traditions  in  our  Public  Schools — 

"  (1)  By  throwing  the  responsibility  for  good  conduct 

on  the  pupils  themselves. 
' '  (2)  By  making   '  the    common   good   the   common 

care.' 
"  (3)  By  utilising  to  the  fullest  extent  the  influence 

of  personal   example   and  responsibility   to   all 

around  us  for  our  actions  and  conduct. 
"  (4)  By  appealing  to  higher  motives  and  ideals. 
"  (5)  By  providing  opportunities  for  definite  practical 

teaching  in  manners  and  morals." 

The  difficulty  of  the  Elementary  School  pupils'  youthful- 
ness  and  of  the  often  unfavourable  nature  of  their  home 
influences  and  general  environment  is  met  by  limiting 
responsibility  and  by  giving  systematic  teaching.     Before 

^  The  Warwickshire  County  Council  has  published  an  excellent 
account  of  its  experiment  with,  the  prefect  system,  written  by  Mr.  W. 
Jewsbury,  M.A.,  Headmaster  of  the  Gleecote  Boys'  School.  Those 
acquainted  with  the  pamphlet  will  recognise  that  it  has  been  drawn 
freely  upon  in  the  above. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  2i§ 

introducing  the  prefect  system  the  ground  is  prepared  by 
weekly  addresses  by  the  head-teacher  upon  various  ethical 
and  social  aspects  of  child  life,  and  at  a  favourable  moment 
the  idea  of  government  by  themselves  is  suggested.  At  fu'st 
the  prefects  are  selected  by  the  head-teacher  and  staff,  but 
when  the  pupils  have  come  through  experience  to  under- 
stand what  such  government  involves  and  what  qualities 
are  needed  the  election  is  handed  over  either  to  the  whole 
school  or  to  the  top  classes.  The  senior  prefect  is  chosen 
by  the  prefects  themselves.  In  the  schools  of  Warwick- 
shire the  prefects  are  classified  according  to  their  duties  as 
district,  school,  class,  and  reserve  prefects,  the  number 
of  prefects  varying,  although  it  is  considered  better  to  have 
a  large  number  in  order  to  widen  the  distribution  of 
responsibility  as  much  as  possible. 

The  system  as  actually  at  work  in  a  London  school  is 
briefly  as  follows  :  The  prefects  are  nominated,  subject 
to  veto  by  the  head  and  class  teacher,  from  the  highest 
class  only,  by  the  pupils  of  that  class.  All  boys  through- 
out the  school  vote,  and  the  chief  prefect  is  elected  by  the 
whole  body  of  prefects.  Their  duties  consist  in  the  general 
supervision  of  the  conduct  of  children  when  outside  the 
class-room,  when  out  of  teaching  hours,  and  when  outside 
tlie  school ;  they  supervise  cloak-rooms  and  outside  of&ces ; 
they  take  the  names  of  late-comers  and  bring  them  to 
"  Snails'  March  "  at  the  close  of  school ;  and  they  have  the 
right  to  make  suggestions  for  the  good  of  the  school.  They 
have  no  jurisdiction  insida  the  class-room,  nor  do  they 
undertake  purely  "  monitorial  "  duties.  Among  the  privi- 
leges they  enjoy  are  the  wearing  of  the  school  badge  on  a 
special  blue  cloth  shield ;  they  support  the  head-teacher, 
facing  the  school  at  general  assembly,  and  the  chief  pre- 
fects proj)Ose  and  second  votes  of  thanks  to  distinguished 
visitors.  As  disciplinary  ineasures  they  may  send  any 
child  to  the  late  line  and  compel  detention  for  disobedience 


220  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

or  slackness,  but  every  pupil  has  the  right  to  come  to  the 
head-teacher  at  once  and  state  his  case  if  dissatisfied. 
They  may  summon  delinquents  before  a  full  prefects'  meet- 
ing, and  they  may  finally  recommend  the  head  to  cane  or 
give  lines.  The  prefects  meet  each  week  and  draw  up  a 
report  to  be  read  to  the  whole  school,  and  once  a  week  they 
meet  the  head-teacher  in  his  room  to  discuss  general 
matters.^ 

It  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted  that  in  its  best  form  the 
prefect  system  is  a  great  improvement  upon  the  old  auto- 
cratic system  of  school  government.  Those  who  have 
tried  it  assert  that  it  develops  the  prefect's  own  character, 
creates  a  sense  of  school  honour  among  the  other  children, 
and  smooths  the  whole  work  of  the  school.  The  effect 
upon  the  prefect's  character  will,  however,  be  good  or  bad 
according  as  the  principles  of  good  school  government  are 
rightly  or  wrongly  conceived  and  applied  by  the  head- 
teacher,  staff,  and  prefects.  The  latter  may  develop  into 
spies  or  bullies  or  prigs  ;  or,  by  seeking  popularity,  exhibit 
and  develop  a  weakness  of  character  harmful  equally  to  the 
school  and  to  themselves. 

How  does  the  prefect  system  affect  the  general  mass  of 
children?  That,  after  all,  is  the  most  important  question. 
We  are  told  that  ' '  they  have  quickly  learnt  to  respect  and 
obey,  especially  where  they  themselves  elect  the  prefects; 
they  regard  them  as  the  guardians  of  the  school  honour, 
and  come  to  share  their  care  for  that  honour ;  the  weaker 
ones  look  to  them  for  protection  ;  and  every  boy  with  ambi- 
tion looks  to  the  day  when  he  will  be  a  prefect  himself,  and 
honours  the  post  accordingly.  That  wholesome  deference 
to  older  boys,  the  embryo  hero-worship,  which  is  thought 
to  be  the  slow  product  of  Public  School  tradition,  shows 

^  My  thanks  for  the  above  account  are  due  to  Mr.  G.  G.  Lewis,  of 
EUerslie  Koad  School. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  221 

itself  suddenly  and  without  effort  in  schools  without  a  past, 
and  where  the  heroes  are  children  of  twelve  and  thirteen 
only."^ 

Sir  Robert  Baden-Powell  refers  to  the  prefect  system 
being  tried  in  Warwickshire  as  similar  in  principle  to  the 
Boy  Scout  movement,  and  believes  that  it  may  solve  some 
of  the  chief  difficulties  of  character-training  in  the  Elemen- 
tary Schools.  He  says:  "In  the  Boy  Scout  movement, 
therefore,  we  have  always  had  as  our  aim  the  development 
of  character  in  each  boy.  Our  system  for  inculcating  this 
is,  inter  alia,  to  put  responsibility  on  to  the  shoulders  of  the 
boy,  to  take  him  seriously,  and  to  expect  a  great  deal  of 
him.  We  effect  this  by  making  the  '  Patrol '  of  six  boys 
our  unit  for  work,  under  the  permanent  command  of  one 
boy  with  the  rank  and  badge  of  '  Patrol  Leader,'  assisted 
by  a  '  Second  '  of  his  own  selection.  The  Patrol  Leader 
is  held  responsible  for  all  that  goes  on  in  his  Patrol.  The 
results  have  been  successful  beyond  expectation." 

Important  differences  exist,  however,  between  the  pre- 
fect system  and  the  Boy  Scout  movement — differences 
which  may  produce  quite  dissimilar  results.  The  Boy 
Scouts  are  a  voluntary  association,  and  are  conscious, 
within  limits,  of  the  purpose  of  their  association.  Their 
activities  are  of  such  a  kind  as  throw  responsibility  upon 
every  member  of  the  Patrol,  give  constant  occasion  for  co- 
operation, and  at  the  same  time  demonstrate  the  need  for 
and  the  value  of  both  responsibility  and  co-operation.  A 
Patrol  of  six  or  eight  boys  is  very  different  from  a  class  of 
forty  or  fifty,  and  affords  many  opix)rtunities  for  every 
member  of  the  unit  to  undertake  some  work  valuable  to  the 
Patrol  and  to  the  community. 

Unless  the  school  can  reduce  these  differences  by  means 

*  Pamphlet  by  Mr.  W.  JowRbury  and  the  Director  of  Education, 
Warwickshire  County  Council. 


222  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

of  social  training  of  the  kind  described  in  an  earlier  part  of 
this  chapter ;  unless  it  can  give  to  its  pupils  clear  ideas  of 
the  school  as  a  society,  and  develop  the  ideal  of  co-opera- 
tion, it  will  never  find  in  any  prefect  system  the  success 
which  has  followed  the  Boy  Scout  movement.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  imitate  Sir  Robert  Baden-Powell's  plan  more 
closely,  and  combine  the  prefect  system  with  the  Boy 
Scout  movement.  The  groupings  for  co-operative  work 
already  described  are  probably  the  means  by  which  this 
may  be  done. 

We  all  have  to  guard  against  the  imperceptibly  progTes- 
sive  transference  of  our  affections  from  the  end  or  aim  to 
the  instrument  or  means.  The  more  complex  and  organ- 
ised the  means,  the  greater  the  danger  that  this  may  occur. 
The  prefect  system  is  nothing  more  than  one  tool  among 
many  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  highest  work  which 
can  be  undertaken — the  training  of  character.  A  school 
may  possess  all  the  mechanism  involved  in  such  a  system, 
and  yet  may  fail  in  achieving  this  training.  Only  when  it 
is  kept  living  and  fresh  by  the  highest  ideals  and  the  most 
liberal  views  of  what  constitutes  character  can  it  be  re- 
garded as  valuable.  Only  when  it  is  found  accompanied 
by  other  means  such  as  those  already  described  can  it  fulfil 
its  proper  function. 

The  prefect  system  seems  to  fall  short  in  that  the  great 
mass  of  pupils  receive  little  training  in  social  co-operation. 
They  often  do  not  elect  the  prefects,  who  are  imposed  upon 
them  by  the  head-teacher.  They  have  no  elective,  no 
legislative,  no  executive  functions,  and  often  find  in  the 
prefect  system  nothing  but  a  change  of  masters.  When 
the  prefects  are  popularly  elected,  and  are  made  respon- 
sible, not  only  to  the  head-teacher,  but  also  to  their  con- 
stituents, the  corporate  feeling  is  much  more  pronounced. 
Attempts  to  give  form  to  this  ideal  of  self-government  have 
been  made  by  admitting  all  the  older  scholars  to  a  share  in 


SCHOOL  GOVEENMENT  223 

both  executive  and  legislative  functions  ;^  from  an  exten- 
sion of  such  experiments  v^'e  might  come  to  realise  what 
wonderful  educational  results  may  follow  from  trusting 
our  pupils  by  conferring  upon  them  a  real  measure  of  self- 
government. 

In  endeavouring  to  secure  such  valuable  results,  we  must 
seek  to  work  within  the  limits  imposed  by  the  nature  of  the 
child.  Attempts  to  make  school  life  closely  resemble  adult 
communal  life  have  broken  down  usually  just  because 
the  two  can  never  be  alike.  The  serious  reality  of  the 
struggle  to  live  and  to  make  progress  should  not  be  brought 
into  the  school.  The  head  of  the  school  and  the  few  regu- 
lations he  makes  exist  to  protect  the  pupils  from  the  results 
of  their  serious  mistakes,  and  to  anticipate  and  ward  off 
disastrous  failures.  Hence  we  shall  always  recognise  the 
wide  difference  between  school  and  society,  and  shall  not 
try  in  the  school  to  do  more  than  prepare  for  the  greater 
and  graver  functions  of  adult  life.  In  another  respect,  too, 
we  shall  follow  the  child's  nature.  The  consciousness  of 
individual  responsibility  should  not  be  forced  too  early ;  it 
is  a  very  gradual  growth,  only  finding  its  full  development 
in  manhood  and  womanhood.  Hence  the  pupil's  share  in 
school  government  will  begin  in  a  small  way,  but  with  the 
growth  of  self-control  and  of  informed  ideals  will  be 
gradually  and  correspondingly  increased.  Facts  are  be- 
ginning to  reveal,  however,  that  the  child  is  much  more 
capable  in  this  direction  than  we  have  hitherto  supposed. 

Many  Secondary  Schools  have  supplemented  the  prefect 
system  by  that  of  the  house  system.  Where  this  is  done, 
the  whole  school  is  divided  longitudinally  into  sections 
varying  in  number  according  to  the  size  of  the  school. 

*  The  student  should  acquaint  himself  with  the  stones  of  "  The 
Little  Coiiiinonwealth,"  the  American  Rcliool  City,  and  the  George 
Junior  Republic,  and  of  the  experiment  described  in  "  An  Experiment 
in  Educational  Self- Government,"  by  James  Simpson.  Liverpool  : 
Henry  Young  and  Sons,  Ltd. 


224  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

Each  section  consists  of  pupils  of  all  ages  ;  thus  each  house 
resembles  a  school  within  the  school.  The  members  of 
each  house  are  encouraged  to  promote  the  interests  of  their 
house  in  every  possible  way,  the  older  members  by  assist- 
ance in  both  work  and  play  to  the  younger,  and  the  younger 
by  obedience  and  loyalty  to  the  older.  Within  each  house, 
therefore,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  valuable  co-operation  and 
a  certain  amount  of  training  in  social  duties ;  but  the  great 
principle  upon  which  this  system  rests  is  not  that  of  co- 
operation :  it  is  rather  the  principle  of  competition  which 
gives  life  to  the  whole  organisation.  The  spirit  of  rivalry 
between  the  houses  generally  predominates  over  the  spirit 
of  co-operation  within  each  separate  house  ;  stories  of  school 
life  have  always  emphasised  this  feature ;  teachers  have 
encouraged  it,  and  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  the 
co-operative  side  has  begun  to  receive  the  attention  it 
deserves.  It  must  be  admitted  that  within  the  separate 
houses  excellent  training  has  been  given  ;  but  the  full  value 
of  such  training  can  never  be  realised  so  long  as  so  much  is 
made  of  competition  and  rivalry.  The  circle  of  human 
beings  to  which  a  constant  loyalty  is  encouraged  should  be 
an  ever-widening  one — the  family,  the  gToup,  the  school, 
the  town,  one's  native  country^and  where  such  groups 
are  kept  small  and  self-contained  and  the  wader  groupings 
are  ignored,  social  training  must  become  narrow  and  result 
in  narrow  sympathies.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that 
the  house  system  may  be  worked  in  such  a  way  as  to  escape 
these  disadvantages  and  to  afford  excellent  training  for 
after-school  life.* 

^  Editor's    Note. — The  house   system  is    in    operation  in  some 
Elementary  Schools — e.g.,  in  Southampton — and  is  foimd  to  work  well. 


CHAPTEE  XII 
OTHER  SYSTEMS  AND  TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS 

1.  Scottish 

Scottish  education  has  a  generally  excellent  reputa- 
tion. To  a  large  extent  this  reputation  is  deserved, 
and  the  reasons  for  this  are  to  be  found  in  the  character 
and  history  of  the  people.  The  Act  of  1696  is  regarded 
as  the  Magna  Charta  of  Scottish  education.  By  this 
Act  landowners  were  compelled  to  provide  a  school  in 
each  parish  and  to  pay  the  teacher  a  fixed  salary.  One 
important  reason  for  the  low  state  of  education  in  England 
before  1870  was  to  be  found  in  the  lack  of  power  to  impose 
local  rates  for  education,  and  thus  to  develop  the  feeling  of 
local  responsibility.  In  Scotland  the  landowners  have  been 
subject  to  school  rates  for  more  than  two  centuries.  By 
the  Education  Act  of  1872,  known  as  the  Young  Act,  the 
Scottish  Education  Department  was  created,  and  the  coun- 
try divided  up  into  School  Board  areas.  Here,  again,  Scot- 
land was  thoroughly  prepared  to  uieet  the  changes.  There 
was  no  question,  as  in  England,  of  rivalry  between  Volun- 
tary and  Board  Schools ;  the  schools  had  for  many  years 
been  entirely  free  from  any  religious  difficulty.  In  England 
the  intolerance  of  all  parties  produced  friction  and  pre- 
vented development. 

The  Scottish  educational  system  comprises  Primary, 
Intermediate,  and  Secondary  Schools.  Primary  Educa- 
tion is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of  five  and  fourteen, 

225  15 


226  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

and  was  until  recently  under  the  control  of  School  Boards/ 
supervised  and  guided,  as  in  England,  by  the  Education 
Department.  Primary  Schools  are  organised  as  Infant  and 
Juvenile  Departments.  The  Infant  Department  gives  a 
two  years'  course,  in  which  the  elements  of  reading,  writ- 
ing, and  arithmetic  are  taught.  The  school  hours  are 
shorter  than  in  England,  being  generally  from  9.30  to  12 
and  from  1.30  to  3.15.  The  Juvenile  Department  has 
three  divisions — the  Junior  and  Senior  Divisions  and  the 
Supplementary  Course.  The  Junior  Division  deals  with 
a  period  of  three  years ;  the  Senior  with  one  of  two  or  three 
years.  At  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen  a  boy  or  girl  may 
pass  the  ' '  Qualifying  ' '  examination ,  which  allows  him  or 
her  to  pass  on  to  Supplementary  Courses.  It  is  perhaps 
here,  during  the  last  two  years  of  Elementary  School  life, 
that  Scottish  education  shows  a  marked  superiority  over 
that  of  England.  The  "marking  time"  so  frequent  in 
the  top  classes  of  the  English  Elementary  School  is,  in 
Scotland,  unknown.  Comparatively  few  children  leave 
school  without  the  qualification  mentioned.  At  this  point 
some  enter  an  Intermediate  or  Higher  Grade  School,  while 
the  remainder  attend  the  Supplementary  Courses.  The 
pupil  may  now  choose  a  commercial  or  industrial  course  ; 
in  the  case  of  pupils  of  rural  schools  an  agricultural,  and  of 
girls  a  household  management  course.  The  usual  subjects 
pertaining  to  commerce  or  industry  are  taught,  but  the 
essential  subject  in  every  case  is  English.  Large  grants 
are  paid  to  these  Supplementary  Courses,  a  state  of  things 
offering  a  strong  contrast  with  that  existing  in  English 
higher  elementary  education.  After  two  years  the  pupil 
leaves  with  a  merit  certificate  detailing  subjects  he  has 
studied  and  the  proficiency  he  has  attained  in  each.  Em- 
ployers and  the  Scottish  people  generally  hold  all  these 

^  By  the  Act  of  1918,  the  School  Boards  were  abolished  and  the 
Local  Education  Authority's  administrative  area  much  widened. 


OTHER  SYSTEMS  227 

leaving  certificates  in  great  estimation ;  hence  the  certifi- 
cates are  generally  carefully  considered  in  appointments  to 
posts  in  the  commercial  and  industrial  world. 

The  Secondary  School  system  shows  far  greater  uni- 
formity than  that  of  England,  and  the  schools  are  in  a 
much  truer  sense  the  people's  schools.  There  is,  speaking 
generally,  nothing  which  corresponds  with  the  great  Public 
Schools  in  England  or  with  the  clean-cut  social  distinctions 
which  appear  in  English  education.  Neither  are  these  to 
be  found  in  Scottish  University  education,  which  is  every- 
where open  to  the  talent  and  industry  of  all  social  classes. 
In  England,  without  valuable  scholarships,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  study  at  the  older  Universities ;  in  Scotland 
University  courses  are  within  the  means  of  almost 
everyone. 

The  Boarding  School  in  Scotland  is  rare  ;  it  would  appear 
that  the  Scotch  people  attach  great  value  to  home  training. 
In  the  Non-Boarding  Schools  the  sexes  are  usually  mixed, 
except  where  organisation  can  be  made  efficient  without  it , 
as  in  the  large  towns,  and  in  the  special  commercial,  indus- 
trial, and  other  courses  necessitating  separation. 

The  Intermediate  School  offers  a  three  years'  course  of 
study,  which  includes  one  language  other  than  English  ; 
the  Secondary  School,  with  its  course  of  five  or  six  years, 
takes  the  pupil  up  to  the  age  of  seventeen  or  eighteen. 

In  England  the  curricula  of  Secondary  Schools  are  to  a 
considerable  extent  controlled  by  a  large  variety  of  exam- 
inations ;  in  Scotland  a  Leaving  Certificate  of  the  Scotch 
Education  Department  serves  the  useful  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing a  great  degree  of  uniformity  without  interfering 
with  the  freedom  and  individuality  of  the  schools.  The 
"  Qualifying  "  examination,  as  has  been  seen,  is  taken  at 
about  the  age  of  twelve.  The  earliest  moment  for  the 
Intermediate  examination  is  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  thus  en- 
suring that  the  full  three  years'  course  has  been  followed. 


228  THE  CUERICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

Some  Scotch  educationists  are  opposed  to  this  restriction, 
as  preventing  the  brilliant  pupil  from  going  forward  as 
quickly  as  he  might.  The  post-intermediate  stage  extends 
from  the  age  of  fifteen  to  seventeen  or  eighteen,  and  is  com- 
pleted usually  by  the  examination  for  the  full  Leaving 
Certificate.  English  and  history  count  as  one  subject,  and 
are  compulsory.  One  other"  language  besides  English,  and 
either  mathematics  or  experimental  science,  must  be  taken. 
The  other  subjects  may  be  selected  at  will  from  an  of&cial 
list.  Head-masters  and  teachers  are  always  consulted 
before  the  Certificate  is  granted  or  refused. 

The  Training  Colleges  for  teachers  have  followed  much 
the  same  lines  of  development  as  those  of  England. 
Scotch  Universities  have  training  departments  and  under- 
take pedagogical  com'ses.  Both  England  and  Scotland, 
however,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  University- 
trained  teacher  is  fairly  common  in  the  Primary  Schools, 
are  behind  Germany  in  their  zeal  for  a  thoroughly  trained 
teaching  profession,  and  there  is  still  a  large  percentage  of 
untrained  teachers  in  both  countries. 

Scotland  owes  much  to  her  teachers,  to  their  capacity, 
industry,  and  independence  of  spirit.  "  To  the  very  last 
the  independent  Scottish  dominie  refused  to  be  bound  by 
the  courses  of  study  of  the  Pevised  or  any  Government 
Code."  The  Scottish  people,  too,  have  taken  an  immense 
pride  in  the  education  of  their  schools  and  Universities. 
Teachers  and  people  have  created  an  atmosphere  of  sym- 
pathy out  of  common  ideals,  and  work  together  in  enviable 
harmony. 

2.  American 

The  Federal  Government  of  the  United  States  does  not 
administrate  and  has  no  supervision  whatever  over  the 
education  of  the  country.  The  National  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation at  Washington  is  scarcely  anything  more  than  air 


OTHEK  SYSTEMS  229 

office  which  collects  educational  information  and  statistics 
and  makes  them  known  to  the  public.  It  has  no  body  of 
inspectors ;  it  issues  no  codes,  memoranda,  suggestions  or 
regulations,  but  leaves  these  matters  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  each  Federal  State.  Each  State  formulates  its  own 
laws  with  regard  to  education.  The  great  outstanding 
feature  of  American  education  is  its  management  by  Local 
x\uthorities.  Each  city  or  county  elects  its  own  School 
Board  ad  hoc,  which  nominates  a  Superintendent  who 
exercises  almost  despotic  power.  The  schools  of  every 
city  and  county  are  supported  by  local  taxation,  with  an 
occasional  grant  from  the  State  in  the  case  of  necessitous 
areas.  This  supervision  by  the  Local  Authority  covers 
Elementary,  Higher,  and  University  Education.  The 
tendency  in  recent  years  with  regard  to  the  School  Boards 
has  been  to  reduce  the  number  of  members  and  to  with- 
draw the  elective  power  from  the  taxpayers,  transferring  it 
to  the  Mayor  or  chief  officials  of  the  area.  There  is  no 
law,  as  in  England,  that  women  should  sit  on  these  School 
Boards,  although  it  is  frequently  the  case  that  they  are  so 
appointed.  The  American  people,  conscious  of  the  cor- 
ruption which  often  exists  in  municipal  and  political  affairs, 
has  endeavoured  to  withdraw  education  from  such  evil 
influences.  This  accounts  for  the  tendency  just  mentioned 
and  the  almost  despotic  powers  of  the  Superintendent. 

American  education,  so  far  as  the  Public  Schools  are 
concerned,  is  entirely  free,  from  the  Elementary  School 
to  the  University.  To  a  large  extent  it  is  also  co-educa- 
tional, although  there  are  many  schools  in  which  boys  and 
girls  are  taught  separately. 

The  system  throughout  the  whole  of  the  States  shows 
wonderful  uniformity,  not,  as  we  have  already  seen,  by 
7'eason  of  the  existence  of  laws  enacted  by  the  Federal 
Government,  but  as  a  result  of  cotnmon  agreement  and 
general  consensus  of  opinion.     The  Middle  and  Western 


A 


230  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

States  have  founded  their  educational  systems  largely  in 
imitation  of  those  of  the  Eastern  and  longer  established. 
For  the  masses  of  American  school-children  the  Public 
Elementary  School  provides  instruction  between  the  ages 
of  six  and  fourteen  or  fifteen.  For  childi'en  below  the  age 
of  six  there  was,  until  recently,  scarcely  any  provision. 
There  is  now  a  growing  feeling  that  the  years  from  four  to 
six  need  educational  supervision,  especially  in  the  case  of 
the  children  of  parents  who  have  to  leave  home  daily  for 
work.  Hence  there  is  a  rapidly  increasing  number  of 
Kindergarten  Schools,  although  at  present  the  number  of 
children  receiving  instruction  at  this  early  age  is  far  smaller 
proportionately  than  in  England.  In  the  Public  Elemen- 
tary School  the  first  four  classes  are  called  Primary  Grades, 
and  the  last  four  Grammar  Grades.  As  in  England,  large 
numbers  of  children  do  not  complete  even  the  full  Elemen- 
tary School  course.  Pupils  who  have  passed  through  the 
full  course  may  then  graduate  and  pass  into  schools  giving 
Higher  Education.  The  High  Schools  provide  a  four 
years'  course,  extending  from  the  age  of  fourteen  to 
eighteen  ;  and  here,  again,  the  number  of  pupils  who  drop 
out  before  the  four  years  are  completed  is  very  considerable. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  in  America  the  word 
"Public  "  signifies  belonging  to  and  controlled  by  the  State. 
In  England,  as  we  have  seen,  it  has  quite  a  different  mean- 
^  ing.  The  Public  Schools,  large  Private  Schools,  and 
Colleges  of  England  are  represented  in  America  by  the 
"Academies,"  and  much  that  can  be  said  of  English 
Public  Schools  can  also  be  said  concerning  the  American 
Academies.  The  latter  are,  for  the  most  part,  residential ; 
the  State  High  Schools  are  generally  Day  Schools.  Ac- 
cording to  Sir  Michael  Sadler,  there  are  signs  of  reaction  in 
America  against  the  idea  of  a  Government  or  Municipal 
monopoly  in  the  supply  of  Secondary  Education,  and  he 
himself  is  in  favour  of  such  private  effort  and  initiative, 


OTHEE  SYSTEMS  231 

combined  with  some  sort  of  State  supervision.  The  High 
Schools  of  America  are  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  Ele- 
mentary Schools,  and  provide  post-elementary  instruction. 
The  Academies,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  pupils  of 
Elementary  School  age,  and  deliberately  prepare  for  future 
College  life.  The  High  Schools  do  not  make  this  their 
objective,  but  give  an  education  which  is  more  or  less  com- 
plete. It  is  true  that  many  thousands  of  pupils  pass  from 
them  to  higher  forms  of  education,  but  the  main  aim  of  the 
High  School  is  to  prepare  for  practical  life.  It  is  also 
probably  correct  to  say  that  the  High  Schools  cater  for  the 
average  pupil,  and  the  Academies  pay  greater  attention  to 
the  brilliant  pupil.  Pupils  who  desire  to  continue  their 
education  pass  from  the  High  Schools  and  Academies  to 
the  "College,"  which  provides  a  four  years'  course,  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-two,  or,  if  desirous  of  becoming  a 
teacher  in  a  Public  Elementary  School,  they  may  proceed 
to  the  Normal  School,  following  there  a  two  years'  course, 
the  first  of  which  is  largely  academic.  From  the  College 
the  way  is  open  to  the  State  University,  thus  taking  the 
pupil  up  to  the  age  of  twenty-five.  Many  Americans  con- 
sider that  this  "ladder  of  education"  is  unduly  long,  and 
that  it  might  be  beneficially  shortened.  Behind  this  view 
there  are  strong  economic  reasons  why  a  young  man  should 
enter  upon  his  professional  or  business  career  at  an  earlier 
age  than  twenty-five. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  American  College  undertakes 
undergraduate  work  leading  to  a  degree,  and  the  University 
both  undergraduate  and  post-graduate  work.  It  is  hence 
possible  for  many  High  School  students  to  omit  the  Col- 
lege course  altogether,  and  to  pass  direct  from  the  High 
School  to  the  University.  By  this  means  the  economic 
difficulty  involved  by  a  too  prolonged  education  is  obviated. 
College  and  University  education  is  sometimes  entirely 
free.    Wherever  fees  are  charged,  they  are  so  small  that 


232  THE  CUEKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

they  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  hindrance  in  obtaining  the 
highest  education  the  country  provides. 

There  has  been  in  recent  years  a  remarkable  impulse 
towards  technical  training  of  all  kinds,  especially  that  suit- 
able for  the  period  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  seven- 
teen. Commercial  education,  which  is  much  older  than 
industrial,  now  occupies  a  very  prominent  position.  The 
regular  "Business  Schools,"  which  are  in  private  hands, 
at  present  contain  the  greater  number  of  pupils.  The 
Public  High  Schools  giving  commercial  education  are, 
however,  making  great  headway.  In  addition,  commer- 
cial education  is  given  in  Private  High  Schools  and  in  the 
Academies,  in  Normal  Schools,  and  in  Colleges  and  Uni- 
versities. There  are  now  more  than  2,600  Commercial 
Schools,  with  a  roll  of  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million  pupils. 
Economic  pressure  and  the  large  growth  of  towns  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the  ideal  of  providing  a  prac- 
tical education,  have  brought  about  an  equally  great  de- 
velopment of  the  industrial  schools;  these,  again,  are 
mostly  in  private  hands. 

The  Technical  Colleges  are  of  three  kinds :  entirely 
private  foundations,  foundations  which  are  partly  private 
and  partly  subsidised,  and  those  connected  with  Colleges 
and  Universities.  The  conditions  of  entrance  are  not  uni- 
form, but  in  general  a  High  School  certificate  or  the 
passing  of  a  special  examination  gives  right  of  entry.  The 
course  is  generally  one  of  four  years,  the  first  two  being 
party  professional  and  partly  general,  the  last  tvv'o  years 
entirely  professional.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science 
may  be  obtained  on  the  completion  of  the  course. 

The  Normal  Schools,  in  which  the  Elementary  School 
teachers  are  trained,  differ  in  some  important  respects  from 
the  Training  Colleges  of  this  country.  There  is  no  com- 
mon certificate  which  gives  the  right  of  teaching  in  every 
part  of  the  country,   as   is  the  case  in  England.     The 


OTHEE  SYSTEMS  233 

licences  to  teach  which  are  granted  are  very  frequently 
valid  only  in  the  town  or  district  which  controls  the 
Normal  School.  As  a  rule,  candidates  for  the  Normal 
School  must  possess  a  High  School  diploma.  The 
"Teachers'  Colleges"  are  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
training  Secondary  School  teachers,  and  for  those  under- 
taking educational  administrative  work.  In  many  cases 
they  provide  a  post-graduate  course,  leading  to  the  degrees 
of  Master  and  Doctor  of  Pedagogy.  In  others  it  is  an 
undergraduate  course,  completed  by  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Pedagogics.  The  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, is  probably  the  greatest  and  most  efficiently 
furnished  and  staffed  institution  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 

In  America  we  thus  find  a  real  system  of  education, 
I'emarkable  for  the  large  amount  of  uniformity  which  exists 
over  such  a  large  area.  The  description  given  naturally 
overlooks  various  points  where  the  system  shows  irregu- 
larities and  incompleteness;  where  it  is  good,  it  is  very 
good  ;  where  it  is  bad,  it  is  also  very  bad,  and  outside  the 
Eastern  and  Middle  States  and  California  the  educational 
system  exhibits  many  serious  deficiencies  in  its  actual 
working.  One  general  feature  we  find  lacking.  Since 
large  numbers  of  American  children  finish  their  education 
with  the  completion  of  the  Grammar  Grades,  it  would 
appear  that  there  is  a  real  necessity  to  provide  such  children 
with  an  education  in  some  way  different  from  that  pro- 
vided for  those  passing  into  the  Public  High  School.  In 
our  own  country,  to  meet  this  state  of  things,  we  possess 
Higher  Grade,  Higher  Elementary,  and  Central  Schools, 
and  there  is  a  growing  feeling  in  America  that  some  more 
suitable  preparation  should  be  given  to  such  pupils  in  the 
last  three  or  four  years  of  the  Elementary  School  course. 

In,  addition  to  the  above  scheme  there  are  large  numbers 
of  evening  schools,  and  the  free  lectures  given  to  persons 
of  all  ages  are  extremely  well  attended. 


234  THE  CUREICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

3.  German 

The  object  of  German  education  is,  or  before  the  war 
was,  mainly  to  secure  and  maintain  the  pre-eminence  of 
the  State.  By  imposing  a  system — organisation  and  cur- 
ricula— by  excluding  freedom  of  initiative,  and  training  the 
nation  in  obedience  to  the  State,  this  aim  was  approxi- 
mately achieved.  No  chance  of  deviating  from  the  system 
was  allowed;  the  State  controlled  all  forms  of  education, 
and,  within  the  limits  of  its  narrow  aim,  was  thoroughly 
efficient. 

The  Central  Authority  is  the  Ministry  of  Public  Worship 
and  Education,  with  three  departments — one  for  Uni- 
versity, Secondary,  and  Technical  Education,  one  for 
Elementary  and  Middle  Schools  and  Training  Colleges, 
and  another  for  Public  Worship.  Prussia  is  divided  into 
fourteen  Provincial  School  Boards,  chiefly  for  higher 
education,  and  into  thirty-seven  counties  for  lower  educa- 
tion. The  Local  Authorities  are  School  Committees, 
which  in  the  towns  delegate  their  powers  to  School  Com- 
missions, bodies  analogous  with  the  English  school  man- 
agers. District  and  Local  School  Inspectors  supervise,  the 
former  frequently  and  the  latter  generally  being  clergymen. 

In  Prussia  about  3  per  cent,  of  the  children  attend 
Middle  and  7  per  cent.  Secondary  Schools.  In  spite  of 
these  facts,  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  money  grants  goes  to 
Secondary  Education. 

Primary  School  Education  begins  at  six,  and  is  not  com- 
pulsory beyond  the  school  year  in  which  the  age  of  fifteen 
is  reached.  The  education  of  children  below  school  age 
is  mostly  in  philantlu'opic  hands.  The  creches  take 
children  up  to  the  age  of  three  for  a  small  fee,  and  older 
infants  of  parents  who  go  out  to  work  are  received  into 
day  homes,  where  food  but  no  instruction  is  provided. 
Kindergarten  Schools  are  attended  by  children  belonging 


OTHEE  SYSTEMS  235 

to  a  better  social  class,  and  their  purpose  is  educational ; 
there  is  a  slowly-growing  tendency  to  give  these  schools 
official  recognition  and  support.  In  most  schools  the 
sexes  are  mixed,  although  co-education  is,  on  the  whole, 
regarded  unfavourably.  School  medical  inspection  is  per- 
functory, especially  in  rural  districts,  and  treatment  is 
provided  by  voluntary  associations  and  by  the  public 
clinics. 

Elementary  Education  in  Germany  aims  at  producing 
citizens  who  shall  be  religious,  patriotic,  and  obedient  to 
authority,  and  the  realisation  of  this  ideal  is  sought  in  a 
curriculum  containing  religion,  German  (including  gram- 
mai-),  geometry,  and  arithmetic;  history,  geography,  and 
the  elements  of  natural  science,  singing  (but  little  theory 
or  sight  singing),  drawing,  physical  training,  and  needle- 
work for  girls.  Manual  training  is  rarely  undertaken. 
Primary  Education  is  complete  in  itself,  and  cannot  be 
used  as  a  stepping-stone  to  Secondary  Education.  The 
way  is  blocked  by  the  early  preparation  needed  for  entrance 
to  a  Secondary  School. 

The  Middle  Schools  of  Prussia  correspond  to  our  own 
Higher  Elementary  Schools,  and  as  reorganised  in  1910 
mark  the  attempt  to  cope  with  the  new  necessities  of  indus- 
ti  ial  and  commercial  life.  There  is  no  scholarship  system, 
or,  indeed,  a  plan  of  any  kind  to  obtain  the  right  kind  of 
pupil  ;  anyone  can  attend  such  a  school  on  payment  of  the 
fees,  which  are  usually  less  than  half  those  of  Secondary 
Schools.  These  schools  please  few  ;  they  are  insufficiently 
distinct  from  the  Elementary  Schools.  There  are  Con- 
tinuation Schools  which  prepare  much  more  thoroughly  for 
the  future  occupation  ;  the  reformers  see  in  them  another 
obstacle  to  their  hopes  of  Secondary  Education  for  all ;  and 
owing  to  various  reasons  the  Middle  Schools  are  little  more 
than  a  means  by  which  a  slight  social  distinction  is  con- 
ferred upon  the  parents  sending  children  to  them. 


236  THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

The  thoroughness  with  which  Germany  has  insisted 
upon  training  its  teacliers  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
features  of  the  German  system.  After  the  completion  of 
the  Primary  School  Course,  the  candidate  for  the  teaching 
profession  enters  a  Priiparanden-Anstalt  for  three  years, 
afterwards  passing  into  the  Training  College  proper  for 
another  three  years.  He  then  obtains  a  Provisional  Certi- 
ficate as  a  result  of  a  leaving  examination,  and  begins  his 
work  as  a  teacher,  for  the  first  year  without  salary,  for  the 
second  as  a  Hilfslehrer  with  a  minimum  salary  of  £40. 
There  is  then,  or  later,  a  second  examination,  after  which 
he  becomes  recognised  as  a  full-fledged  teacher.  If  chance 
places  him  in  a  University  town,  he  may  find  oppor- 
tunities of  studying  for  an  examination  which  will  allow 
him  to  teach  in  the  Mittel-Schule  ;  and  even  for  the  Eektor 
examination,  which  may  finally  lead  him  as  far  as  the 
County  Inspectorate.  If  this  chance  fails  him,  he  is  left 
to  pursue  his  career  with  the  elementary  equipment  pro- 
vided by  a  German  Training  College,  and  handicapped  by 
six  years  of  isolation  from  the  general  life  of  the  nation. 

Secondary  Education  is  as  thoroughly  organised  as 
Primary;  in  fact,  the  State  has  given  greater  attention 
and  care  to  the  training  of  its  future  officials,  clergymen, 
business  and  professional  men,  than  to  that  of  the  prole- 
tariat. The  education  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes  is 
much  more  liberal  and  varied,  although  the  general  method 
of  giving  information  by  word  of  mouth  and  then  demand- 
ing its  reproduction  is  prevalent  everywhere.  The  course 
of  development  by  which  the  Gymnasium,  or  purely  clas- 
sical school ,  lost  its  monopoly  of  Secondary  Education  and 
the  exclusive  right  of  entry  to  the  Universities  is  of  great 
interest,  and  must  be  known  in  order  to  understand 
German  education  of  to-day.  Secondary  Schools  may  now 
be  classified  as  those  providing  a  nine  years'  or  a  six  years' 
course,  from  the  age  of  nine  to  eighteen  or  nine  to  sixteen. 


OTHEB  SYSTEMS  '237 

All  the  schools  of  the  first  type  may  pass  their  pupils  on  to 
the  University.  The  three  types  of  such  schools  are  :  The 
Gymnasium,  giving  a  purely  classical  education ;  the  Eeal- 
gymnasium,  combining  the  classical  and  the  modern,  and 
teaching  Latin,  but  not  Greek  ;  the  Ober-realschule,  having 
a  purely  modern  course  of  study,  consisting  of  modern 
languages,  mathematics,  and  science.  Corresponding  with 
these  three  types  are  the  schools  with  six-year  courses — 
the  Progymnasium,  the  Eealprogymnasium,  and  the  Eeal- 
schule.  No  provision  is  made  whereby  pupils  may  enter 
Secondary  Education  at  an  age  later  than  nine  ;  hence  the 
decision  in  this  matter  and  with  regard  to  the  type  of 
Secondary  Education  has  to  be  made  far  too  early,  and  the 
decision  is  practicahy  irrevocable.  In  recent  years  there  has 
been  a  strong  tendency  to  postpone  the  age  at  which  Latin 
is  begun,  with  the  result  that  various  German  States  have 
permitted  the  foundation  of  Keform  Schools — Keform- 
gymnasien  and  Beformrealgymnasien — in  which  the  study 
of  French  is  begun  at  ten  and  of  Latin  at  thirteen.  In 
the  Reformgymnasien  of  the  Frankfort  type  Greek  is  not 
begun  till  the  age  of  fifteen. 

The  training  of  Secondary  School  teachers  is  very 
thorough.  After  a  full  course  at  a  nine-year  Secondary 
School  and  three  years  at  a  University,  the  candidate  takes 
a  written  and  oral  examination  which  includes  the  subject 
of  pedagogy.  One  year  is  then  spent  at  a  Training 
College  or  Secondary  School  recognised  for  the  purpose ; 
following  this  is  a  Probationary  year  as  a  teacher  in  a 
Secondary  School,  in  which  eight  or  ten  hours'  per  week 
teaching,  without  salary,  is  done.  Instruction  and 
criticism  accompany  this  work.  The  provincial  examin- 
ing body  may  now  recognise  the  candidate  as  suitable  for 
appointment. 

Most  States  liave  a  system  of  compulsory  continuation 
education  up  to  the  age  of  seventeen  or  eighteen,  thus 


238  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

possessing"  the  enormous  advantage  of  providing  the  means 
for  consoUdating  and  carrying  forv^'ard  the  instruction  re- 
ceived in  the  Elementary  Schools,  and  of  supervising  that 
most  difficult  period  of  life  called  adolescence.  The  Con- 
tinuation Schools  of  Munich  are  v^^ell  worth  special  study. 
Taking  an  intermediate  position  between  Continuation  and 
Technical  Education  are  the  Gewerbeschulen.  There 
are  also  large  numbers  of  Lower  and  Higher  Commercial 
Institutes,  Technical,  Agricultural,  and  Art  Institutes, 
and  in  addition  a  system  of  very  efficient  Commercial  High 
Schools. 

4,  French 

The  French  system  of  education,  considered  as  one  of 
the  prime  factors  in  the  production  of  the  wonderful 
culture  and  creative  activity  of  all  types  which  charac- 
terise the  France  of  to-day,  is  worth  close  study.  We 
cannot,  however,  do  more  than  indicate  in  this  short 
account  its  salient  features. 

The  organisation  of  French  education  offers  the  best 
example  of  centralised  administration.  The  Minister  of 
Education  is  responsible  to  Parliament  for  the  administra- 
tion, conduct,  and  curricula  of  every  type  of  school  in  the 
country — University,  Secondary,  and  Primary.  Each  of 
these  divisions  is  in  charge  of  a  Director,  who  in  his  turn 
is  responsible  only  to  the  Minister.  Consultative  Com- 
mittees assist  both  Minister  and  Directors ;  and  ' '  General 
Inspectors"  act  as  intermediaries  between  the  Minister 
and  the  Local  Authorities. 

The  whole  country  is  divided  into  seventeen  educational 
districts,  called  Academies,  all  but  two  having  their 
centres  in  University  towns.  The  head  of  the  University, 
called  the  Rector,  supervises  all  types  of  education  in  his 
own  Academy,  and  is  assisted  by  one  or  more  Academy 
Inspectors.     In  the  local  control  of  Primary  Education 


OTHER  SYSTEMS  239 

the  Rector  shares  his  powers  with  the  Prefect,  concerning 
himself  with  general  matters  rather  than  with  detailed 
organisation  and  supervision.  A  Departmental  Council, 
consisting  of  the  Prefect,  Academy  Inspectors,  Du-ectors 
of  Training  Colleges,  elected  members,  a  body  of  Primary 
teachers,  and  two  Primary  Inspectors,  deals  with  the 
Elementary  Education  of  each  department.  The  smallest 
educational  unit  is  the  Communal  School  Commission, 
consisting  of  the  Mayor,  the  Primary  Inspector,  and  dele- 
gates from  the  IMunicipal  Council  and  Canton. 

Primary  School  Education  is  compulsory  between  the 
ages  of  six  and  thirteen.  There  are  Ecoles  Maternelles, 
open  from  7  in  the  morning  until  7  at  night,  for  infants 
whose  mothers  go  out  for  daily  work.  These  schools  make 
little  or  no  pretence  to  be  of  the  kindergarten  kind,  and 
their  atmosphere  is  one  of  work;  reading,  writing,  and 
number  are  taught,  and  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  estab- 
lishment of  good  physical  and  moral  habits.  Classes 
Enfantines  form  the  link  between  the  Ecole  Maternelle 
and  the  Primary  School.  Where  no  Ecole  Maternelle 
exists,  they  fulfil  the  educational  function  of  both.  Where 
neither  of  these  types  exists,  the  Elementary  School  may 
admit  children  at  the  age  of  five. 

French  Elementary  Education  recognises  three  stages 
— the  Lower  Course ,  from  seven  to  nine  ;  the  Middle ,  from 
nine  to  eleven ;  and  the  Upper,  from  eleven  to  thirteen. 
The  latter  is  often  non-existent,  as  an  examination  suc- 
cessfully passed  at  the  end  of  the  Middle  Course  excuses 
further  attendance.  The  full  Elementary  School  Course 
is  sometimes  followed  by  a  further  year  of  more  advanced 
work  in  a  Supplementary  Course  (Cours  complementaire) ; 
in  the  towns  this  may  be  replaced  by  a  full  two  or  three 
years'  course  in  a  Higher  Primary  School.  The  subjects 
of  the  curriculum  of  the  ordinary  Elementary  School  are  : 
Moral  instruction,  civics,  the  mother-tongue,  history  and 


240  THE  CUKKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

geography,  elementary  science,  arithmetic,  drawing,  sing- 
ing, manual  training  (needlework  for  ghls)  and  physical 
training.  Moral  instruction  is  the  French  substitute  for 
religious  teaching,  and  in  the  hands  of  an  inspking  teacher 
may  be  formative  of  ideals  and  character,  but  with  a  feeble 
teacher  and  no  Bible  as  a  textbook  becomes  a  drab  affau\ 
Civic  instruction  is  given  in  close  correlation  with  the 
moral,  and  tends  often  to  become  equally  ineffective,  the 
analysis  of  civic  facts  and  duties  being  begun  too  early. 
The  teaching  of  the  mother-tongue  is  the  most  striking 
feature  of  French  education,  and  merits  the  study  of  all 
English  teachers.  Manual  training  is  limited  to  work 
with  paper  and  cardboard. 

The  Higher  Primary  Schools  of  France  correspond  to 
the  Middle  Schools  of  Germany  and  the  Higher  Elemen- 
tary and  Central  Schools  of  this  country.  The  number 
of  pupils  enjoying  this  higher  education,  which  prepares 
them  to  enter  Trade  and  Technical  Schools,  or  to  take 
higher  rank  in  industrial  occupations,  is  not  large.  There 
is  very  keen  competition  for  entry,  and  the  number  of 
scholars  accepted  is  always  far  below  the  demand  for 
places.  The  course  extends  over  three  years,  as  in 
England,  with  a  further  extension,  sometimes,  of  one 
year.  Examinations  take  place  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
those  failing  giving  place  to  others.  As  in  other  countries 
of  Europe  and  in  America,  many  leave  before  the  comple- 
tion of  the  full  course,  and  thus  fail  to  derive  full  benefit 
from  it.  In  the  first  year  the  curriculum  is  common  to 
all.  The  other  years  provide  a  general  industrial,  com- 
mercial, or  agricultural  course  of  instruction. 

Each  Department  of  France  possesses  a  Training 
College  for  men  and  one  for  women.  These  Ecoles 
iNormales  are  under  the  control  of  the  Rector  of  the 
Academy,  and  each  has  a  Director  or  Dhectress  at  its  head. 
The  entrance  examination  is  competitive,  the  candidates 


OTHEK  SYSTEMS  241 

being  between  sixteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  hold- 
ing the  "brevet  elementaire."  The  Training  Colleges  of 
France  do  not  supply  nearly  sufficient  teachers  for  the 
Primary  Schools;  the  numbers  are  made  up  by  contribu- 
tions from  the  various  types  of  higher  educational  institu- 
tions. The  training  course  is  one  of  three  years.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  year  an  examination  is  held,  success  in 
which  confers  the  "brevet  superieur."  After  the  con- 
clusion of  the  full  Training  College  course  and  two  further 
years  of  teaching,  success  in  another  examination  gives 
the  "Certificat  d'aptitude  pedagogique,"  entitling  to  full 
recognition  and  appointment.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary, 
there  are  two  Central  Training  Colleges,  which  prepare 
for  teaching  in  the  Ecoles  Normales. 

The  Secondary  School  is  for  all  practical  purposes  quite 
independent  of  the  Primary.  The  French  educational 
system  resembles  the  German  in  having  no  ladder  of 
education  reaching  from  the  Elementary  School  to  the 
University  (as  there  is  in  America  and  to  a  degree  in 
England),  and  there  is  in  France  little  or  no  demand  for 
the  "common  school."  The  organisation  of  Secondary 
Education  is  throughout  the  country  on  similar  lines ;  its 
different  types  of  instruction,  corresponding  to  the  different 
"sides"  of  our  own  schools,  being  found  in  one  and  the 
same  institution.  The  Lyc^e  is  provided  and  maintained 
by  the  State,  the  College  by  the  municipality;  in  other 
respects  the  differences  are  insignificant. 

At  the  head  of  the  Secondary  School  is  the  Head-master 
or  Proviseur,  who  is  assisted  in  matters  of  discipline  by 
the  Censeur,  and  in  matters  of  management  by  the 
Econome.  The  Proviseur  does  very  little  teaching,  and 
on  the  whole  has  very  little  knowledge  of  what  goes  on  in 
the  class-rooms  in  the  actual  work  of  teaching.  The 
Secondary  School  Course  is  divided  into  two  cycles,  the 
first  of  which  consists  of  classes  6,  5,  4  and  3,  the  second 

16 


242  THE  CUEKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

of  classes  2  and  1  and  a  Philosophy  and  Mathematics 
Class.     The  school  which  prepares  for  the  Lycee  proper 
contains    a    Preparatory    Division    having    a    two   years' 
course,  and  an  Elementary  Division,  also  of  two  years.    At 
the  age  of  eleven  the  French  boy  may  enter  the  first  cycle 
of  the  Lycee  proper.     In  the  second  cycle,  begun  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen,  he  may  select  one  of  four  courses 
— the    Latin    and    Greek    course,    Latin    and    Modern 
Languages,  Latin  and  Science,  Modern  Languages  and 
Science.     All  the  other  subjects  are  common  to  the  four 
groups.      The  whole  of  French   Secondary  Education  is 
directed  towards  the  passing  of  the  Baccalaureat  examina- 
tion, which  gives  admission  to  professional  courses  at  the 
Universities  and  to  Polytechnics.     The  first  part  of  this 
examination  is  taken  after  Class  1,  which  is  called  the 
Rhetoric  Class,  the  second  part  after  the  year  of  Philo- 
sophy and  Mathematics. 

Secondary  Education  for  girls  has  lagged  behind  that 
for  boys.  While  the  last  few  years  have  seen  great 
developments  in  the  education  of  girls,  French  public 
opinion  and  educational  authorities  still  tend  to  underrate 
its  importance  and  necessity.  The  number  of  Lycees  and 
Colleges  for  girls  is  comparatively  small.  Such  schools 
provide  a  course  of  five  years,  with  sometimes  an  extra 
year  to  give  opportunities  of  qualifying  for  entrance  to 
Training  Colleges  for  Secondary  Teachers.  There  is  no 
study  of  the  classical  languages,  and  an  Englishman  is 
struck  by  the  almost  total  absence  of  sports. 

The  training  of  Secondary  teachers  offers  a  very  strong 
contrast  with  that  of  Germany.  In  France  the  practical 
side  of  the  training  has  been  rather  neglected.  In  the 
Higher  Normal  Schools,  where  this  tr'aining  is  carried  on, 
a  three  years'  course  is  given.  Candidates  enter  by  means 
of  a  competitive  examination,  and  after  two  years  are 
examined    for    the    Certificat    d'Aptitude    in    Secondary 


OTHEE  SYSTEMS  243 

teaching.  The  third  year  is  spent  in  preparation  for  the 
examination  known  as  agregation,  which  corresponds 
roughly  to  the  standard  of  the  London  M.A.  degree. 
Only  a  limited  number  are  admitted  each  year  to  this 
examination. 

On  the  whole,  it  must  be  said  that  the  French  charac- 
teristic of  logical  consistency  has  produced  in  its  educa- 
tional system  a  centralisation  of  organisation  and  a  uni- 
formity in  type  of  school,  curricula,  and  methods,  which 
is  bound  to  hamper  progress.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
thoroughness  and  enthusiasm  with  which  administrators 
and  teachers  have  laboured  to  achieve  the  national  ideals 
have  done  much  to  mitigate  the  natural  effects  of  work- 
ing" within  these  nan;ow  limits. 


CHAPTEK  XIII 

ORGANISATION  AND  CURRICULA  UNDER  THE 
ACT  OF  1918 

The  Education  Act  of  1918,  known  popularly  as  the 
Fisher  Act,  represents  the  cumulative  effect  of  years  of 
quiet  growth  among  the  people  of  the  conviction  that 
education  is  a  vitally  important  matter  to  the  material 
prosperity  of  the  nation,  and  this  conviction  was  greatly 
quickened  during  and  because  of  the  war.  The  working 
classes  have  become  alive  to  this  notion,  and  rightly  see  in 
it  the  only  secure  foundation  for  their  industrial  and 
political  freedom.  The  world  of  business  has  long  been 
demanding  improvements  in  both  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Education  of  a  kind  about  which  their  ideas  are 
both  obscure  and  conflicting.  The  Board  of  Education 
has  been  in  a  position,  and  has  made  excellent  use  of  its 
position,  to  guide  public  and  even  professional  thought 
into  proper  channels,  and,  probably  more  important  than 
all,  various  associations,  for  the  most  part  connected  with 
the  teaching  profession,  but  including  men  and  women  not 
in  its  ranks,  have  laboured  unremittingly  to  bring  about 
an  organisation  of  education  corresponding  to  their  in- 
formed ideals.     The  recent  Education  Act  is  the  result. 

Organisation  of  education  is  not  everything,  and  when 
an  excellent  organisation  exists  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
to  the  nation  merely  material  success  among  keen  inter- 
national competitors  may  produce  unenviable  results.  The 
ideal  of  social  efificiency  tends  to  take  the  more  visible  form 

244 


THE  ACT  OF  1918  245 

of  industrial  and  commercial  efficiency,  and,  unless  we 
look  beyond  this  to  ideals  of  character  and  brotherhood, 
will  land  us  in  the  grossest  materialism.  Nevertheless, 
the  connection  between  the  material  and  the  spiritual  is 
close ;  just  as  better  housing  is  Hkely  to  diminish  the  drink- 
ing habit  and  crime  in  general,  so  a  better  status  for  the 
teacher  and  a  more  efficient  education  for  the  pupil  are 
likely  to  be  conditions  favourable  to  mental  and  spiritual 
development.  The  extra  care  which  under  the  Act  is  to 
be  given  to  the  health  of  the  children,  and  the  greater 
attention  which  is  to  be  bestowed  upon  the  last  years  at 
the  Elementary  School,  are  examples  of  this  improved 
organisation ;  but  in  the  long-run  everything  will  depend 
upon  the  teacher,  his  ideals  and  methods  of  using  the  new 
and  better  material  means  now  at  his  disposal. 

In  the  Education  Act  of  1918  striking  progress  has  been  J 
made  towards  the  establishment  of  a  national  system.     It  "^JT  .^ 
becomes  now  the  duty  of  Councils  of  every  County  and    ''^^^ 
County  Borough  to  provide  ' '  for  the  progressive  develop-  ^^ 

ment  and  comprehensive  organisation  of  education  in 
respect  of  their  area."  No  doubt  such  Councils  are 
already  attempting  with  varying  degrees  of  success  to  do 
this ;  but  their  efforts  are  in  future  to  be  supervised  more 
closely  and  co-ordinated  more  thoroughly  with  the  work 
of  other  Councils.  Each  Council,  therefore,  "may  and 
shall,  when  required  by  the  Board  of  Education,  submit 
to  the  Board  schemes  showing  the  mode  in  which  their 
duties  and  powers  under  the  J^Mucation  Acts  are  to  be  per- 
formed and  exercised."  By  calling  upon  the  Education 
Authority  to  produce  its  own  schemes,  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation encourages  variety  and  initiative,  and  avoids  the 
uniformity  which  is  such  a  striking  characteristic  of  the 
French  system.  These  "schemes"  will,  if  liberally 
treated  by  the  ContntI  Authority,  do  much  to  vitalise 
education  throughout  the  country. 


246  THE  CUBRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

A  further  step  towards  unification  is  taken  by  the  Act 
in  that  it  gives  power  to  two  or  more  Local  Education 
Authorities  to  combine  if  they  wish  with  respect  to  any 
of  their  powers  under  the  Education  Acts,  and  to  delegate 
any  of  those  powers,  except  that  of  raising  a  rate,  to  a 
joint  committee  or  a  joint  body  of  managers.  This  they 
may  do  without  the  express  sanction  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, But  a  still  further  step  in  the  same  direction  may 
be  taken.  If  two  or  more  Councils  apply  for  permission, 
the  Board  of  Education  may  ' '  by  scheme  provide  for  the 
establishment  and  (if  thought  fit)  the  incorporation  of  a 
federation"  for  administering  educational  matters  "v/hich 
it  is  necessary  or  convenient  to  consider  in  relation  to  areas 
larger  than  those  of  individual  Education  Authorities." 
It  is  possible  that  this  section  of  the  Act  may  pave  the  way 
to  the  gradual  formation  of  federations  which  will  tend  to 
affiliate  an  increasing  number  of  Local  Education  Authori- 
ties, so  that  finally  the  whole  country  may  be  divided  into 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  educational  administra- 
tive areas,  resembling  closely  the  "provincial  associa- 
tions "  which  appeared  in  the  Bill  as  first  introduced.  A 
University  would  probably  become  the  home  and  head- 
quarters of  each  great  federation.  Obvious  advantages 
would  result  from  such  a  sequence  of  events ;  it  might  even 
end  in  the  Board  of  Education  delegating  most  of  its 
detailed  supervisory  duties  to  the  federations,  and  itself 
becoming  an  institution  resembling  in  essentials  the 
National  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington.  Whether 
these  consequences  ensue  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  co- 
ordination and  economy  of  effort  will  be  gTeatly  facilitated 
^j  the  formation  of  such  federations. 

In  dealing  with  the  recipients  of  education  the  Act  is 
astonishingly  wide  in  its  scope.  No  great  needs  of  life 
are  neglected  ;  body  and  mind  both  receive  increased  atten- 
tion, and  the  former  comes  more  into  the  foreground ;  out- 


THE  ACT  OF  1918  247 

of-schooi  activities  come  at  last  within  the  purview  of  the 
educator ;  play  takes  a  position  it  never  held  before  ;  health 
is  regarded  as  of  fundamental  importance,  and  sickness  is 
compulsorily  dealt  with ;  infancy,  childhood,  and  adoles- 
cence are  at  last  envisaged  as  an  unbroken  sequence  of 
progressive  development. 

Attendance  at  school  is  made  compulsory  until  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  Local  Education  Authorities  may  by 
by-laws  extend  this  compulsory  period  to  the  age  of  fifteen. 
The  half-time  system  is  abolished,  no  exceptions  being 
permissible  between  five  and  fourteen.  Where  the  raising 
of  the  school  age  involves  hardships  upon  parents,  the 
Local  Education  Authorities  are  empowered  to  provide 
"maintenance."  Hitherto  the  Elementary  School  has 
been  handicapped  in  its  efforts  to  use  efficiently  the  last 
year  or  two  of  its  pupils'  school  life.  Many  children  cease 
attendance  on  some  ground  or  other  at  thirteen  ;  others  gain 
scholarships  to  Secondary,  Trade,  Central,  and  Higher 
Grade  Schools.  So  large  a  number  are  withdrawn  in 
these  waj^s  that  the  top  classes  are  often  very  small,  and 
have  for  economy  to  be  combined  under  one  teacher.  The 
result  has  been  seen  in  the  "  marking  time"  so  common 
a  feature  in  the  top  classes  of  the  Elementary  Schools. 
Larger  senior  classes  will  now  give  the  teacher  an  oppor- 
tunity of  dealing  with  these  scholars  more  adequately,  and 
he  will  be  still  further  assisted  by  other  provisions  of  the 
Act  which  we  may  now  note. 

Under  the  new  Act  further  restrictions  arei  imposed 
upon  the  employment  of  children  of  school  age.  No  child 
under  twelve  may  be  employed  at  all ;  a  child  of  the  age  of 
twelve  or  upwards  shall  not  be  employed  on  any  Sunday 
for  more  than  two  hours,  or  on  any  school-day  before  the 
close  of  afternoon  school,  nor  on  any  day  before  6  o'clock 
in  the  morning  or  after  8  o'clock  in  the  evening.  A  Local 
Education  .\uthority  may,  however,  under  certain  condi- 


248  THE  CUEEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

tions,  permit  a  child  to  be  employed  for  one  hour  before 
and  one  hour  after  school.  All  this  is  to  the  good,  but 
does  not  go  nearly  far  enough.  If  the  reader  cares  to 
calculate,  he  will  find  it  is  possible  for  a  child  between  the 
ages  of  twelve  and  fom'teen  to  spend  the  usual  '2n\  hours 
per  week  in  school  and  in  addition  26  hours  and  even 
longer  in  some  form  of  employment.  Moreover,  the  Act 
allows  the  child  to  work  86  hours  per  week  during  holidays. 
If  the  suggestions  of  the  Committee  on  Wage-Earning 
Children  are  listened  to,  modifications  of  this  section  of  the 
Act  will  be  made  which  may  mitigate  some  of  the  evil 
results ;  but  something  more  than  modifications  are  re- 
quired— drastic  changes  are  needed.  For  the  moment  we 
merely  note  that  the  Act  marks  progress,  and  does  some- 
thing to  facilitate  the  school  training  of  the  older  scholars. 
The  Nursery  School  has  long  been  the  aim  of  many  re- 
formers who  regard  the  present  Infant  School  or  Depart- 
ment as  an  institution  attempting  to  pursue  clashing 
ideals,  the  lower  section  taking  infantile  home  pursuits 
and  happy  natural  activities  as  the  media  of  education,  the 
upper  devoting  much  of  its  energy  to  formal  education  and 
bookish  occupations.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  Infant 
School  the  children  are  treated  as  babies  ;  they  play,  talk, 
do  what  is  natural  for  them  to  do,  sleep,  and  in  general 
lead  a  thoroughly  ideal  home  life.  In  the  upper  part  their 
play  becomes  more  of  a  drill ;  formal  exercises  in  number 
and  reading  are  substituted  for  instruction  hidden  in 
games  and  natural  occupations;  home  surroundings,  such 
as  chairs  and  tables,  give  place  to  desks  and  the  bondage 
they  bring  with  them;  in  fact,  the  infants'  heaven  sinks 
somewhat  suddenly  below  the  horizon.  This  change  is 
inevitable,  but  it  has  frequently  been  questioned  whether 
one  institution  can  satisfactorily  carry  out  two  such 
different  types  of  education,  and  the  Nursery  School, 
already  proved  to  be  a  successful  experiment  in  private 


THE  ACT  OF  1918  249 

hands,  will  probably  become  the  general  organisation  for 
providing  the  training  which  at  present  is  given  in  the 
lower  classes  of  the  best  Infant  Schools.  The  aim  will 
be,  not  to  provide  formal  instruction,  but  to  do  what  can 
be  done  to  produce  healthy,  well-nourished,  physically 
robust,  mentally  alert,  happy  infants.  So  long  as  the 
education  of  these  infants  is  in  the  hands  of  suitably 
trained  and  competent  persons,  the  transfer  of  functions 
to  Nursery  Schools  should  be  beneficial,  but  the  Draft 
Regulations  recently  issued  seem  purposely  framed  to 
allow  the  work  to  get  into  incompetent  hands.  If 
' '  women  of  sufficient  general  education ,  who  have  proved 
their  practical  capacity  in  other  forms  of  service,"  and 
young  persons  of  the  "  supplementary  t-eacher  "  type,  are 
to  be  officially  considered  as  desirable  persons  for  expert 
work  of  this  kind,  the  Nursery  School  will  never  efficiently 
perform  the  educational  and  social  functions  expected  of  it. 
It  will  now  be  the  duty  of  a  Local  Education  Authority 
"  to  make  or  otherwise  to  secure  adequate  and  suitable 
provision  by  means  of  Central  Schools,  central  or  special 
classes,  or  otherwise,"  of  "practical  instruction  suitable 
to  the  ages,  abilities,  and  requirements  of  the  children," 
and  courses  of  advanced  instniction  for  older  scholars  and 
for  children  who  remain  at  such  schools  beyond  the  age 
of  fourteen.  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  brightest 
pupils — at  any  rate,  of  those  who  find  their  chief  means  of 
development  in  books — will,  as  now,  be  transferred  to 
Secondary  Schools  at  about  the  age  of  twelve  ;  that  many 
of  those  remaining  in  the  Element;) ry  School  will  develop 
their  individuality  and  powers  best  under  courses  of  in- 
struction which  emphasise  manual  activities ;  and  that 
some  of  the  others  will  receive  benefit  hitherto  denied  them 
from  advanced  instruction  of  a  kind  suited  to  their  special 
powers.  Implicit  in  these  proposals  is  the  possibility  of 
achieving  Elementary  School  traditions,  and  of  reproduc- 


250  THE  CUEKICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

iiig  in  the  Elementary  School  the  atmosphere  and  feeling 
which  exist  in  the  upper  forms  of  every  good  Secondary 
or  Public  School. 

Under  the  Act  it  becomes  obligatory  for  all  young  per- 
sons— that  is,  those  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and 
eighteen — to  attend  Continuation  Schools  for  320  hours 
in  each  year.  Dming  the  first  seven  years  after  the 
"appointed  day,"  the  attendance  will  be  compulsoi^y  only 
for  those  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen,  and 
the  number  of  hours  may  be  reduced  to  280  if  the  Local 
Education  Authority  so  resolve.  The  hours  so  used  must 
be  taken  from  the  employers'  time,  with  a  margin  to  allow 
of  recuperation.  The  Continuation  Schools  will  be  of 
three  types — those  entirely  under  the  control  of  a  Local 
Education  Authority  or  of  several  acting  in  co-operation ; 
those  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  which  are 
"secured"  by  the  Local  Education  Authorities — for 
example,  by  the  help  of  voluntary  bodies  and  individuals, 
but  which  are  nevertheless  under  the  control  and  direction 
of  a  Local  Education  Authority ;  and  private  Continuation 
Schools,  entirely  provided,  organised,  and  maintained  by 
unofficial  bodies  or  individuals.  In  the  latter  class  of 
school  fees  may  be  charged,  in  the  two  former  education  is 
free.  This  permission  for  individuals  and  unofficial  bodies 
to  found  and  carry  on  Continuation  Schools  will  probably 
result  in  flexibility  and  variety  of  curricula,  and  in  valu- 
able experiments  that  will  demonstrate  which  lines  the 
education  of  adolescents  should  follov/.  The  State  has 
thus  come  to  see  the  urgent  necessity  for  some  form  of 
training  which  shall  aim  at  a  preparation  for  manhood 
and  womanhood,  and  which  shall  bridge  the  dangerous 
gap,  known  as  adolescence,  between  child  and  adult  life, 
the  period  of  storm  and  stress,  when  circumstances  largely 
decide  whether  a  boy  is  to  become  a  citizen  or  a  hooligan, 
a  social  unit  or  a  rebel. 


THE  ACT  OF  1918  2S1 

The  mere  provision  of  continuation  instruction  with 
compulsion  to  be  present  when  it  is  given  will  not  re- 
generate the  nation  ;  everything  will  again  depend  on  the 
teacher,  whether  he  is  a  person  of  sound  education,  with 
experience  of  life,  of  wide  and  liberal  views,  and,  above 
all,  whether  he  possesses  ideals  and  sympathy.  The  anti- 
cipated immediate  supply  of  any  sort  of  teachers  for  these 
schools  is  ludicrously  inadequate  ;  yet  so  important  is  this 
matter  that  every  incentive  should  be  offered  which  might 
appeal  to  the  type  of  man  or  woman  required.  An  in- 
exorable law — that  status  and  remuneration  must  be  high 
to  attract  the  best  men  and  w^omen — governs  almost 
universally  the  choice  of  profession,  preaching  and  teach- 
ing not  excepted,  and  through  neglect  of  this  law  almost 
any  sort  of  person  has  often  been,  and  will  still  be,  able 
to  enter  the  profession  and  do  his  or  her  share  in  retarding 
the  intellectual  and  moral  growth  of  the  community.  The 
country  is  but  ill-prepared  to  make  this  section  of  the  Act 
a  means  of  regenerating  the  community.  Few  Local 
Education  Authorities  have  as  yet  advanced  far  with  their 
task  of  obtaining  and  training  teachers  for  the  work  of  the 
future  Continuation  Schools. 

Nothing  is  said  in  the  Act  with  regard  to  the  training  of 
these  teachers.  One  point  seems  clear  :  they  must  not 
be  trained  on  the  same  lines  as  are  teachers  of  Elementary 
Schools  at  present.  They  are  to  teach  young  men  and 
women  wlio  are  out  in  the  industrial  and  business  world, 
mixing  with  all  sorts  and  conditions,  bearing  responsi- 
bilities, and  earning  their  own  living.  Hence  for  instruc- 
tors of  such  pupils  the  secln.-ion  of  nn  ordinary  Training 
College  and  particularly  of  a  rc;^i(lciitial  college  is  out  of 
the  question.  Everything  possible  should  be  done  to  give 
them  full  opportunities  of  meeting  and  mixing  with  all 
types  of  men  and  women,  in  Universities,  polytrchnicK, 
workshops,  factories,  offices,  and  foreign  countries.     Only 


262  THE  CURBICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

by  these  means  will  it  be  possible  for  them  to  establish 
living  and  fruitful  contact  with  this  new  kind  of  pupil. 
Formal  instruction  will  naturally  play  its  part  in  the  new 
teaching",  but  will  be  only  one  element  of  it.  Hitherto  the 
training"  of  teachers  has  not  unnaturally  emphasised  this 
side,  but  we  shall  be  compelled  by  the  new  conditions  to 
change  onr  methods.  The  Continuation  teacher  will  seek 
less  to  furnish  the  memory  with  useful  information  than 
to  stimulate  new  interests,  to  train  his  judgment,  and 
create  a  desire  to  use  it  fairly.  He  has  also  to  make  in- 
struction attractive  ;  if  he  cannot  do  this,  he  will  have 
failed  completely.  His  pupils  will  neither  listen  nor  pre- 
tend to  listen  ;  will  show  respect  neither  for  him  nor  his 
subject.  While  there  are  means  of  making  the  Element- 
ary School  child  listen,  however  bored,  and  assume  an 
appearance  of  respect,  there  will  be  none  in  the  Continua- 
tion School  but  interest. 

In  many  other  directions  the  duties  and  powers  of  the 
Local  Education  Authorities  have  been  extended,  and 
especially  valuable  to  the  nation  are  the  duties  and  powers 
connected  with  the  maintenance  of  health  and  the  treat- 
ment of  sickness.  Local  Education  Authorities  "  may, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Education,  make  ar- 
rangements to  supply  or  maintain  or  aid  the  supply  or 
maintenance  of — 

ii 

(a)  Holiday  or  school  camps,  especially  for  young 

persons  attending  Continuation  Schools ; 
(h)  Centres  and  equipment   for  physical  training, 
playing  fields  .   .   .  school  baths,  school  swim- 
ming-baths ; 
"  (c)  Other  facilities  for  social  and  physical  training 
in  the  day  or  evening." 

The  Boy  Scout  and  the  School  Journey  movements — the 
latter    almost    entirely    in   the   hands   of   teachers — have 


THE  ACT  OF  1918  253 

taught  the  value  of  hohday  and  school  camps ;  Elementary 
School  teachers  have  demonstrated  what  can  be  done 
educationally  by  means  of  the  swimming-bath ;  and  the 
Central  Authority  now  officially  recognises  these  activities 
and  encourages  their  general  adoption.  If  good  use  is 
made  of  the  power  to  make  grants  for  these  purposes, 
sufficient  experience  may  soon  be  gained  to  justify  still 
wider  applications  of  the  principle  of  open-air  educa- 
tion. 

Much  is  done  in  the  Act  to  discover  and  deal  with 
disease.  By  the  Education  (Administrative  Provisions) 
^ct  of  1907  it  became  the  duty  of  every  Local  Education 
Authority  controlling  Elementary  Education  to  provide 
for  the  medical  inspection  of  the  children  ;  they  were  also 
empowered  to  make  arrangements  for  attending  to  health 
and  physical  condition — that  is,  for  giving  medical  treat- 
ment. They  were  thus  obliged  to  provide  inspection,  but 
the  provision  of  medical  treatment  was  optional.  By  the 
Act  of  1918  the  latter  becomes  obligatory.  The  duties  and 
powers  of  Elementary  Education  Authorities  prior  to  the 
Act  of  1918  with  regard  to  medical  inspection  and  treat- 
ment are  under  the  Act  extended  to  Local  Education 
Authorities  controlling  education  other  than  Elementary. 
Thus  medical  inspection  of  Secondary  and  Continuation 
Schools  becomes  obligatory,  medical  treatment  optional. 
These  powers  may  be  exercised  by  Local  Education 
Authorities  with  respect  to  "children  and  young  persons 
attendmg  any  school  or  educational  institution,  whether 
aided  by  them  or  not,  if  so  requested  by  or  on  behalf  of  the 
persons  having  the  management  thereof."^  "By  this 
Section  it  becomes  possible  for  the  whole  of  the  children 
and  young  persons  in  the  country,  no  matter  what  kind  of 
school  or  educational  institution  they  may  attend,  to  be 

»  Education  Act  of  1918. 


254  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

brought  under  the  provisions  for  the  medical  inspection 
and  treatment  of  children  and  young  persons  attending 
schools  provided  by  the  Local  Education  Authority."-^ 

It  also  becomes  obligatory  for  each  Local  Education 
Authority  to  ascertain  what  children  are  physically  defec- 
tive or  epileptic,  and  to  make  provision  for  them  siinilar  to 
that  made  for  mentally  defective  children  under  the  Ele- 
mentary Education  (Defective  and  Epileptic  Children) 
Act  of  1914. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  short  survey  of  the  Act  to  do  more 
than  barely  mention  the  chief  changes  it  introduces,  and 
we  shall  have  to  be  content  to  finish  our  summary  by  allud- 
ing to  three  other  features  which  may  in  the  future  lead  to 
very  important  developments. 

Paragraph  23  states  that  "  with  a  view  to  promoting  the 
efficiency  of  teaching  and  advanced  study,  a  Local  Educa- 
tion Authority,  for  the  purposes  of  Part  II.  of  the  Educa- 
tion Act,  1902,  may  aid  teachers  and  students  to  carry 
on  any  investigation  for  the  advancement  of  learning  or 
research  in  or  in  connection  with  an  educational  institu- 
tion, and  with  that  object  may  aid  educational  institu- 
tions." Such  a  provision  may  have  as  one  of  its  most 
important  results  the  establishment  of  schools  for  carrying 
on  research  work  in  pedagogy  as  distinct  from  psychology. 

Local  Education  Authorities  under  the  Act  of  1902  had 
powers  conferred  upon  them  ' '  to  provide  or  assist  in  pro- 
viding scholarships  for,  and  to  pay  or  assist  in  paying  the 
fees  of,  students  ordinarily  resident  in  the  area  of  the 
council  at  schools  or  colleges  or  hostels  within  or  without 
that  area."  Under  the  Act  of  1918  these  powers  are 
extended,  and  include  a  power  to  provide  allowances  for 
maintenance.  Thus  no  poor  child  will  find  his  future 
handicapped  by  the  inability  of  his  parents  to  maintain 

1  "The  Education  Act— with  Notes,"  p.  70.  Published  by  the 
National  Society. 


THE  ACT  OF  1918  255 

him   at   a   Secondary    School    to   which    he   has   won    a 
scholarship. 

Finally,  it  becomes  obligatory  for  persons  responsible 
for  schools  and  institutions  not  in  receipt  of  grants  from 
the  Board  of  Education  to  fiu^nish  to  the  Board  the  name, 
address,  and  a  short  description  of  the  institutions  in  a 
prescribed  form,  and  any  other  particulars  which  may  be 
prescribed  by  regulations.  This  will  provide  a  national 
register  of  all  schools  and  educational  institutions,  which 
may  in  time  play  a  part  with  regard  to  education  similar 
to  that  which  the  registration  of  the  population  played  with 
regard  to  the  war — that,  namely,  of  calling  upon  some  or 
all  of  such  educational  institutions  to  undertake  some 
definite  function  in  the  education  of  the  people. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  * 


I.  HISTORY  AXD  DESCRIPTION 

Adamsok:  Short  History  of  Education. 

Balfour,  Grahajm:  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

BiRCHENOTJGH :  History  of  Elementaiy  Education. 

BiNNS:  A  Century  of  Education. 

Board  of  EorcATiON:  Educational  Statistics. 

The  Course  System  in  Evening  Schools  (Pamphlet  19). 

Annual  Reports. 
Creasy:  Technical  Education  in  Evening  Schools. 
Holman:  English  National  Education. 

Hughes  and  Klemm:  Progress  of  Education  in  the  Centuiy. 
Jacksox,  Cyril:  Outlines  of  Education  in  England. 
Lawson,  W.  R.:  John  Bull  and  his  Schools. 
LoNDOX  Cou:n'ty  Council:  Organisation  of  Education  in  London. 

Handbook  on  Central  Schools. 
Newton,  A.  W. :  The  English  Elementary  School. 
Norwood  and  Hope:  Higher  Education  of  Boys  in  England. 
Reconstruction,     IMinistry    of:    Labour    Conditions    and    Adult 

Education. 
Sadler  and  Beard:  Continuation  Schools  in  England,  etc. 
Teachers'    Encyclopaedia:    vol.    v.,    on   Continuation,  Higher    Grade, 
and  Open-Air  Schools. 


II.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Adamson:  Pioneers  of  Modem  Education,  1600-1700. 

Barnett:  Teaching  and  Organisation. 

Burstall:  Girls'  High  Schools. 

Leach;  English  Schools  at  the  Reformation. 

DE  Montmorency,  J.  E.  G.:  The  Progress  of  Education  in  England. 

State  Intervention  in  English  Education. 
Sandiford:  Comparative  Education. 

Watson,  Foster:  English  Grammar  Schools  to  ICGO  (see  also  other 
sections). 

*  Additional  references  for  more  detailed  points  will  be  found  in  most  of 
thtj  books  in  this  list. 

257  17 


258  THE  CURRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


III.  BUILDINGS,  FURNITURE,  EQUIPMENT 

Barnett:  op  cit. 

Bray:  School  Organisation. 

Clay,   F.:   Planning  of   School    Buildings   (Teachers'    Encyclopgedia, 

vol.  v.). 
Crowley:  Hygiene  of  School  Life. 
Kerr:  Care  of  the  School  Child. 
Lyster:  School  Hygiene. 
O'Shea:  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education. 
Porter:  School  Hygiene  and  the  Laws  of  Health. 
Report  of  the  British  Association  on  the  Influence  of  School   Books 

on  Eyesight,  1912. 


IV.  THE  CURRICULUM 

Adams  :  Evolution  of  Educational  Theory. 

Adamson:  op.  cit. 

Abler:  Moral  Education. 

Atkins  and  Hutton:  Teaching  of  Modern  Foreign  Languages. 

Bagley:  Educational  Values. 

Ballard  :  Curriculum  of  Elementary  Schools  (Teachers'  Encyclopaedia, 

vol.  v.). 
Board  of  Education:  The  Course  System  (Pamphlet  19). 
Bryant,  S.  :  Educational  Ends. 
Dewey:  School  and  the  Child. 

School  and  Society. 

Educational  Essays. 
Findlay:  The  School. 

Principles  of  Class  Teaching. 
Griggs:  Moral  Education. 
Gunn:  The  Infant  School. 

Hantjs:  Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values. 
Hayward:  The  Primary  Curriculum. 
Heck  :  Mental  Discipline. 
Holmes:  What  is  and  What  Might  Be. 
Horne:  The  Philosophy  of  Education. 
MacCunn:  Making  of  Character. 
MoNTESSOBi:  Montessori  Method;  Montessori  Advanced  Method  (and 

Board  of  Education,  Pamphlet  24). 
Murray  and  Brown-Smith:  The  Child  under  Eight. 
Nunn:  Education,  its  Data  and  First  Principles. 
Plaisted:  Early  Education  of  Children. 
Raymont:  Principles  of  Education. 
Rein:  OutHnes  of  Pedagogics. 
Sleight:  Educational  Values  and  Metliods. 
Spencer  :   Education. 


BIBLIOGEAPHY  259 

Tagore:  Shantiniketan. 

The  University  of  JVIanchester  Press:    Outline    of    Educational 

Courses. 
The  Journal  of  Experimental  Pedagogy  (Longmans,  three  times  a  year). 

V.  HANDWORK 

Ballard  :  Handwork  as  an  Educational  Medium. 

Dearborn:  Motor-sensory  Development. 

Nunn:  The  Play  Motive  (Reprmt  from  the  Educational  Times). 

Report  on  Teaching  of  Handicraft  (L.C.C.,  P.S.  King  and  Co.). 

Toichers'  Encyclopa?dia:  vol.  ii.,  Article  on  Educational  Handwork. 

VI.  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

Board  of  Education:   Regulations  for  the  Preliminary  Training  of 

Teachers,  etc. 

Training  of  Women  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools. 
Brown,  J.  F. :  Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools  in  Germany, 

and  the  U.S.A. 
Darroch:  Place  of  Psychology  in  the  Training  of  Teachers. 
Murray,  Gilbert:  An  Educated  Nation  (Conference  of  Educational 

Associations,   1917). 
RoscoE,  F. :  Teaching  as  a  Profession. 
Teachers'  Encyclopaedia:  Articles  on  Training  of  Teachers,  vol.  viii. 

VII.  ORGANISATION  (INTERNAL) 

Adamson:  Practice  of  Instruction. 

Bagley:  Classroom  Management. 

Barnett:  Teaching  and  Organisation. 

Bray:  School  Organisation. 

Collar  and  Crook:  School  Management. 

Report  of  L.C.C  on  Internal  Examinations  in  Elementary  Schools. 

Skrine:  Pastor  Agnorum. 

Thompson,  D'Arcy:  Day  Dreams  of  a  School  Master. 

VIII.  DEVELOPMENT  AND  THE  SOCIAL  ASPECT  OF 
EDUCATION 

Adams:  Spirit  of  Youth  in  the  City  Streets. 
Chrysostom,  Brother:  Personality  and  Education. 
Cronson:  Pupil  Self -Government. 
Dewey:  Democracy  and  Education. 

Schools  of  To-morrow. 
Donaldson:  The  Growth  of  the  Brain. 
Deummond:  Introduction  to  Child  Study. 


260  THE  CUKEICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 

Hall,  G.  S.:  Adolescence. 

Youth:  its  Education,  Regimen,  and  Hygiene. 
Hughes:  The  Making  of  Citizens. 

The  Democratic  Ideal  in  Education. 

School  Training. 
Johnson:  Problems  of  Boyhood. 
Kerschensteiner:  Education  for  Citizenship. 
Lane,  Homer:  The  Little  Commonwealth. 
INIackenzie,  R.  H.  :  The  Boy  Scout  Movement. 
Macmillan,  M.  :  The  Camp  School. 
Mark,  H.  T.  :  The  Unfolding  of  Personality  in  Education. 
MtrMFOiiD:  The  Dav.-n  of  Mind. 
Murray  and  Brown-Sihth:  The  Child  under  Eight. 
Nunn:  Education,  its  Data  and  First  Principles. 
O'Shea,  M.  v.:  Social  Development  and  Education. 
Rowe:  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child. 
Sandiford:  Comparative  Education. 

The  Mental  and  Physical  Life  of  School  Children. 
Scharlieb:  The  Hope  of  the  Future. 
Scott,  Colin:  Social  Education. 
Slaughter:  The  Adolescent. 
Sully  :   Studies  of  Childhood. 
Teachers'  Encyclopaedia  :  vol.  iii.,  Burstall,  S.  A.  :  On  Co-Education; 

vol.  X.,  Mackenzie:  On  Scout  Movement. 
Woods:  Co-Education. 
Welton  and  Blandfoed  :  Moral  Training  through  School  Discipline. 


LX.  OTHER  SYSTEMS 

Adamson  :  Practice  of  Instruction. 
Burstall:  Impressions  of  American  Education. 
Farrington:  Public  Primary  School  System  of  France. 

French  Secondary  Schools. 
Gibson:  Education  in  Scotland. 
Hughes  and  Klemm:  Scotch  Education. 
Moore:  Fifty  Years  of  American  Education. 
Oliphant:  lYench  Schools. 

Paulsen:  German  Education — Past  and  Present. 
Pressland:  Education  in  Germany. 
Sandiford:  Comparative  Education. 
Smail:    Trade  and  Technical  Education   in  France   and    Germany. 

(Pamphlet  L.CC) 
Teachers'  Encyclopaedia:  vol.  vi.,  Education  in  U.S.A. 
Winch:  Notes  on  German  Schools. 


INDEX 


Academies,  American,  230 

—  French,  238-239 

Acts,  Board  of  Education,  24 

—  Defective  and  Epileptic  Children, 
254 

—  Education  (1870),  3 
(1902),  3 

(1918),  5,244-255 

—  Endowed  Schools,  22 

-^  Necessitous  Board  Schools,  7 

—  Provision  of  Meals,  7 

—  Public  Schools,  21 

—  Taxation  (Customs  and  Excise), 
26 

—  Technical,  26 

—  Voluntary  Schools,  7 

—  Young,  225 
Ad  hoc  Bodies,  8 
Adult  Schools,  27-29 
Age  of  Entrance,  39 
Aims  of  Education,  58-68 
Arithmetic  in  Rural  Schools,  181- 

182 
Army  Schools,  28-29 
Arnold,  Dr.,  217 
Art  Subjects,  Specialisation,  190 

B 

Backward  Child,  Tlie,  18,  188,  190 
Baden-Powell,  Sir  Robert,  221 
Bell,  Dr.,  6 

Bishop's  Stortford  College,  125-120 
Board  of  Agriculture,  1, 23 

—  of  Education,  Functions  of,  8 
Boarding  Schools,  22 

Scottish,  227 

Boy  Scout  Movement,  221-222 
British  Schools,  6 

—  and   Foreign  School  Society,  6, 
31 


Buildings  (Elementary),  Accommo- 
dation, 40,  50 

of  German  Schools,  40, 183 

Class  Rooms,  43-44,  50,  51 

Colouring,  45 

Hall,  41 

Lighting,  44 

Main  Room,  52 

Types  of,  42-43 

Ventilation  and  Heating,  45- 

48 

Buildings  and  Equipment  (Secon- 
dary), 53-56 

Bursars,  32 

Burstall,  Miss,  132 

Business  Schools,  American,  232 

C 

Capitation  Grant,  0 
Charity  Commissioners,  22 
Child  Study,  75-83 
Childhood,  79-83 
Class,  Meaning  of,  175 
Classes  Enfantines,  239 
Classes,  Open  Air,  19 
Classification  of  Pupils,  186 

—  of  Staff,  188-189 
Clay,  Mr.,  46 

Clifton  College,  120-123 
Cockerton  Judgment,  25 
Co-Education,  American,  229 
Colleges,  Working  Men's,  27 

—  Training,  Elementary,  30-35 

Secondary,  35-36 

Colleges,  20, 241 

Commissions,  Lord  Clarendon's,  21 
Taunton's,  21 

—  Bryce,  23,  24 
Conferences,  201,  204 
Consultative  Committee,  7 
Continuation  Schools,   27-30,  250 


261 


262 


THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


Continuity  of  Education,  108-113 
Contributory  Schools,  13 
Co-operative  Activities,  207-215 

—  Societies,  29 

Courses  of  Study,  Secondary  School, 

111,  130.  131 
Curricula.  Principles  of.  Elementary 

57-74,  84-100 
Secondary,  101-137 

D 

Department,  Size  of,  39 
Draught  Board,  46 
Dumville,  Mr.,  100 

E 

Ecoles  MaterncUes,  239 

—  Normales,  241-242 
Education,   Elementary,  Historical 

Sketch  of,  6-7 

—  Secondary,  Modern  Development 
of,  21-24 

—  Higher  Types,  20-36 
Education  Act  (1870),  3 
(1902),  3 

(1918),  5,244  fE. 

—  Department,  7 

—  Reform  Council,  111 

—  Systems,  Scottish,  225-228 

American,  228-233 

German,  234-238 

French,  238-243 

—  Values,  58-74 

Elementary  Schools  (types),  3,  4-8, 
10-15,18,19,51,249 


Fatigue  of  Teacher,  142,  143 
Field  Club,  29 
Formal  Training,  59-61, 110 
Free  Education,  7 

Furniture  (Elementary),  37  fE.,  44, 
48-49 

G 

Garden  School,  39 
Glazebrook,  Canon,  110 
Government  of  School,  205-224 

Professor  Dewey  on,  206 

—  by  Pupils  themselves,  207,  217- 

224 
Governors  of  Secondary  Schools,  9 


H 
Hall,  Stanley,  75 
Handicraft  Centres,  51 
Handwork,  73,  77-78,  82-83,  173 
Harrow  School,  127 
Head  Teacher,  duties  of,  183-204 

American  and  German,  183 

Elementary  and   Secondary, 

compared,  184 
Herbartians,  61 

High  Schools,  American,  230-233 
Highgate  School,  123-124 
Holiday  Camps,  252 
Home  Secretary,  1 
Homework,  200-201 
"  Hoppers,"  46 
House  System,  183,  223-224 


Imperial    College    of    Science   and 

Technology,  27 
Individual  Sufliciencj',  66 
Infancy,  76-79 
Intermediate     Schools     (Scottish), 

225-227 


James,  William,  77 

Junior  County  Scholarships,  15 

Juvenile     Department     (Scottish ), 

226 

K 
Kindergarten    Schools,    American. 

230 
German,  234-235 


Ladder  of  Education  (American), 
231 

Lancaster,  Joseph,  6 

Liberal  Education,  91-92 

Local  Education  Authority,  Con- 
stitution of,  7-8,  244  ff. 

—  Government  Board,  1 

London  Education  Authority,  8 
(note),  15 

Lycie,  241 

M 

Managers,  School,  7-8 

Manchester  Grammar  School,  115- 

119 
Mannheim  Experiment,  18,  188 


INDEX 


263 


Manual  Work,  12 
Mark,  Thistleton,  216 
Matter  and  Method,  95-100 
Mechanics'  Institutes,  27 
Medical  Treatment,  7,  253 
Mentalfreahness,  141-142 
Mentally  deficient,  7,  IS 
Middle  Schools  (Prussia),  235 
MiU  Hill  School,  127 
Montessori,  Dr.,  75.  7S 
Municipal  Schools,  27 
—  Girls'  School,  133-137 

N 
National  Bureau  of  Education,  228 
National  Society,  6 
Normal  Schools'(  American),  232-233 
Norwood  and  Hope,  22,109-110,  112- 

113 
Nursery  Schools,  248-249 


Organisation     of     Rural     Schools, 
174-182 


Payment  by  Results,  7 
Physically  Defective,  17,  18 
Playground,  39 
Plenum  System,  46 
Polj-technics,  27 
Prefectorial  System,  217-220 
"  Primary,"  9 
Promotion,  192-197 
Proviseur,  183,241 
Pupil  Teacher,  33-35 

R 

Reclassification  of  Pupils,  187 

Register  of  Schools,  255 

—  of  Teachers ,  7 

"  Remove  "  Classes,  188 

Resefirch  Work,  Educational,  254 


Sadler,  Sir  Michael,  230 

St.  Leonard '.s  School,  132-133 

Scholarships,  15  f. 

Science  and  Art  Department,  25 

—  Schools,  25,  103 


Scott's  Social  Education,  210  fE. 
Secondary  Schools,  First  and  Second 

Grade,  24 

Municipal,  24 

Prepfiratory,  23 

Public;  22 

Self -Government,  217-224 
Settlements,  29 
Social  Training,  205-224,  252 
Societj-    for    Promoting    Christian 

Knowledge,  6 
Speciali&t    Teachers,    94-95,     189- 

190 
Spencer  {"  Education  "),  6,  67,  90, 

195 
State  Aid  and  Control,  1,  3,  6,  14, 

27,  65  (see  also  Acts) 
Student  Teacher,  32,  33,  185 
Sunday  Schools,  27 
Supplementary  Course,  Scottish,  226 

French,  239-240 

Sj'stems  of  Education  other  than 

English,  225-243 


Teachers'  Colleges,  American,  233. 

Technical  Schools,  13,  25-28 

Time  Tables  of  Elementary  Schools, 
138-182 

of  French  Elementary  Schools, 

138 

time  allotted  to  subjects,  139, 

153-154 

length    and    distribution    of 

lessons,     140  ff. 

of     Infant     Department     of 

large  school,  144-147 

of  Boys'  Department  of  Ele- 
mentary School,  150-159 

of  Girls'  Department  of  Ele- 
mentary School,  lGO-161 

of  Boys'  Department  of  Higher 

Grade  School,  163 

of  Open-Air  School,  165 

of  Central  School  (Com- 
mercial), 168-169 

of  Mixf^d  Department,  Central 

School  (Commercial  and  In- 
dustrial), 170-171 

of  Rural  School,  178-179 

Tobin's  Tubes,  46 

Trade  Schools,  13,  16,  17 


-264 


THE  CUKRICULA  OF  SCHOOLS 


Training  Colleges,  30-36 

Scottish,  228 

(foreign),  232  3. 

—  of  Continuation  School  Teachers, 
283 

U 

University  College,  120 

—  Extension,  29 

—  Tutorial,  29 

Universities,  27 


Values,  Educational,  58-74 


W 
Wakefield  Grammar  School,  127 
War  Office,  1 

Warwickshire  Prefect  System,  218  ff. 
Wells,  H.  G.,  2 
"  Whiskey  Monej',"  26 
Women  Teachers,  Employment  of, 
191-192 

of  Germany,  192 

Workers' Educational Association,29 
Working  Men's  Clubs,  29 
Works'  Schools,  28 


Y.M.C.A.,27 


PRIXTED    IN    GREAT   EKITAIN    EY 
EILLINO  AND  SONS,   LTD.,    GDILDFOSD  AND  ESHER 


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